Changes in direction during running cuts are crucial in sports, and walking turns are equally vital for daily mobility. Sidestep motions generate twisting motion that exerts pressure on the foot/shoe system during shoe–ground contact. Turning and cutting involve sharp twists, potentially affecting shoe-ground sliding due to structural/material distortion of shoe. Torsional stiffness (TS) of shoes is crucial for lateral movements, and it measures resistance to twisting between the back and fore parts of the shoe along its longitudinal axis. Alongside TS, damping coefficients (DC) are also vital mechanical features for a dynamic system. Prior shoe studies emphasized biomechanical aspects, but there is limited literature about the critical analysis of shoes' mechanical properties, including TS and DC. Shoes are specialized sports equipment designed to protect and enhance human movement performance and designed based on distinct constructions and movement patterns. Evidence shows the effects of alterations in TS through various changes in shoe designs, including components and structures. These alterations include differences in upper materials, midsole hardness, sole modifications such as horizontal cuts throughout the outsole, adding partial outsoles in shoe waist part instead of full outsoles, soles with varying stiffness achieved through incisions, and the incorporation of torsion bars into the sole structure. Air cushion shoes with adjustable sole constructions, featuring air-filled chambers instead of traditional midsole structure, present a unique design. Despite their growing use and potential benefits in sports, these shoes have been underrepresented in studies. The effect of adjustable shoe constructions on mechanical behavior and lower extremity biomechanics during sidestep running cuts and walking turns remains unclear. This study was categorized into two parts: (A) Mechanical studies that focused on the characterization of shoe torsional behavior in two separate studies, and (B) Biomechanical studies that focused on human performance evaluations by investigating kinematic and kinetic parameters under experimental conditions during running cut and walking turn movements.

The first mechanical study thus examined the impact of adjustable shoe configurations on shoe TS. Testing was conducted on (i) unaltered shoes (UAS), which are air cushion shoes, and (ii) altered shoes (AS), which are modified UAS with elastomeric spacers inserted into the cavities formed by air chambers. The test machine rotated the forefoot relative to the fixed rearfoot section at 30⁰ for inversion and eversion movement at an angular speed of 1⁰/s. TS was calculated from the slope of loading curve of torsional moments vs angular displacement using least square curve fitting. Study results found that in the AS, there were percentage increases in TS of 11.30%, 19.67%, and 31.11% for shoe sizes US 8, 9, and 10, respectively, compared to UAS. Similarly, in the AS, there were increases of 40.00%, 23.02%, and 9.77% for eversion TS in shoe sizes US 8, 9, and 10, respectively, compared to UAS.

The second mechanical study investigated the impact of adjustable shoe configurations on the TS and DC to simulate real-world cutting effects through repetitive cyclic torsional loading tests at different angular speeds. Three shoe conditions were tested: (i) control shoes (CS), which are adjustable air cushion shoes, (ii) midpart altered shoes (MAS), and (iii) forepart altered shoes (FAS), both modified with adjustable elastomeric spacers in sole constructions. TS was assessed at an angular velocity of 1°/s, while the DC were evaluated across a range of angular velocities (25-150°/s). Shoes were subjected to repeated torsional loading-unloading with angular displacements of 0–30° for inversion and eversion motion. A reliability test validated the experimental method, revealing good intra-session reliability (ICC(3,1) = 0.478) and excellent inter-session reliability (ICC(3,k) = 0.667) for inversion TS. About the TS of shoe conditions, inversion TS showed a 35.38% increase for MAS and a 6.15% increase for FAS compared to CS. Likewise, eversion TS increased by 29.82% for MAS and 14.04% for FAS compared to CS. These results indicate that altering sole constructions with adjustable spacers improved the TS and might have the potential to lower the risk of ankle injuries during cutting. It can be inferred that shoes with greater TS may require less mechanical energy to stabilize the foot-ankle structure, and the MAS might be a suitable option for sports. This study also suggests that components of the midpart region have a greater impact on TS, and changes in midpart shoe construction could affect more in TS characteristics. These findings underscore the importance of the midpart region over the forepart. TS might be optimized by changing the geometry and materials of sole constructions, and the shoe's midpart region has greater potential for optimization. Regarding the DC of shoe conditions, test results revealed an inverse correlation between DC and angular velocities for the inversion motions. Notably, at the highest angular velocity 150⁰/s, all shoe conditions demonstrated the lowest damping coefficient, indicating that shoes retained most of their energy during twisting motion, resulting in relatively low energy dissipation. This might result in higher twisting forces on foot-shoe system and ankle, might compromise ankle stability and increasing injury risk. Conversely, shoes with minimal damping might reduce harmful vibrations in soft tissues based on a previous study. This research offers valuable insights into the mechanical characteristics of shoes for developing sports footwear to enhance performance and reduce injury risk.

In the biomechanical study, this study examined how alterations in TS of adjustable shoe configurations impact ground reaction force (GRF), twisting moments, and lower limb joint moments and powers during sidestep running cuts and walking turns for the UAS, AS, and barefoot (BF) conditions. Seventeen healthy recreational athletes were recruited, and biomechanical variables were measured using a motion capture system (MAC, USA) and force plate (Kistler, USA). In the study results for biomechanical performance of running cuts revealed significant differences across experimental conditions for impact peak (p=0.009) and impulse (p=0.018) in vertical GRF, time to reach peak braking (p=0.004), and peak propulsion (p=0.025) for anterior-posterior GRF in ANOVA test. No significant differences were observed in GRF peaks and impulses between UAS and AS, except for a trend of differences in impact peak (p = 0.087) for vertical GRF. At ankle and knee joint, peak ankle power absorption (p=0.019), peak knee internal rotation moment (p=0.042), peak knee extension moment (p=0.001), peak knee flexion moment (p=0.000), and peak knee power absorption (p=0.047) showed significant differences among experimental conditions. However, no significant differences between the UAS and AS were noticed for peak joint moments and power. Altered shoe torsional stiffness did not significantly affect peak forces and peak ankle and knee joint moments or powers; hence, the sole adjustment did not influence cutting performance. This study offers insights into sports footwear design, suggesting that adjusting TS through sole modification could benefit athletes in sports involving cutting maneuvers. This adjustment might potentially reduce the risk of injuries by controlling the twisting force at the ankle that is often experienced during such maneuvers.

In this study, analysis of biomechanical performance for walking turns revealed significant delays in time to first peak (p<0.05) and second peak (p=0.001) of vertical GRF, as well as time to second peak of medio-lateral GRF (p=0.002), and time to peaks of braking (p<0.05) and propulsion (p<0.05) anterior-posterior GRFs for both UAS and AS conditions compared to BF. However, no significant difference was observed between UAS and AS, though AS demonstrated lower time delays than UAS for these parameters. The delayed time to peak impact forces suggests a lower loading rate, potentially decreasing injury risks during turning. Significant changes in contact time (p=0.002) indicate a potential alteration in sidestep turning performance. Peak knee flexion moment (p=0.011) varied significantly among experimental conditions, being reduced for both UAS and AS conditions, with AS showing the lowest. This reduction in peak knee flexion moment may have implications for training benefits. Furthermore, significant differences among test conditions were noted for first peak (p<0.05) and second peak (p<0.05) hip extension moments. Noteworthy results were observed in peaks of ankle power generation (p=0.004) and absorption (p=0.003), knee peak power generation (p=0.007), and second peak hip power generation (p=0.015). Footwear with modified torsional stiffness can serve as a training aid to enhance the storage and release of energy at the lower limb joints.

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