隨著電子、光電與金屬表面處理等產業持續發展，含銅與鉬廢水之排放已成為兼具污染防治與資源回收意義的重要議題。為兼顧廢水處理、金屬回收與副產物高值化應用，本研究首先以流體化床均質結晶技術（Fluidized Bed Homogeneous Crystallization, FBHC）處理含銅與鉬廢水，並進一步將回收所得之顆粒應用於UVA/H2O2高級氧化處理程序（Advanced Oxidation Processes, AOPs）以降解RR195模擬染料廢水，藉此建立結合廢水採礦與循環利用之整合技術。
研究結果顯示，FBHC系統能有效同步去除廢水中的銅與鉬，在適當條件下，兩者的去除率與結晶率皆可達85%至95%以上。經固體產物鑑定分析，顯示回收所得之均質結晶顆粒主要成分為Cu3(MoO4)2(OH)2，證實該技術可將水中的重金屬轉化為具再利用潛力之固體顆粒。
將此回收之Cu3(MoO4)2(OH)2顆粒直接作為UVA/H2O2系統之催化材料時，發現該廢水副產物具備優異的催化活性，對RR195染料的去除率可高達99%。進一步探討其反應機制，結果表示此系統的降解成效主要來自部分金屬溶出所引發之均相Fenton-like反應與異相催化的協同作用。同時，亦可自自由基抑制試驗的結果推測，超氧/超氧化氫自由基（·O2-/HO2·）可能是反應過程中的關鍵活性氧類之一。
本研究不僅成功驗證了流體化床均質結晶技術可有效處理含銅與鉬廢水並回收功能性顆粒，更證實了此副產物能作為高級氧化處理程序的有效催化劑，展現重金屬廢水資源化與副產物高值化利用之可行性。

The discharge of copper- and molybdenum-containing wastewater from industrial processes is a crucial issue for pollution prevention and resource recovery. To simultaneously address wastewater treatment, metal recovery, and high-value by-product application, this study utilized Fluidized Bed Homogeneous Crystallization (FBHC) to treat such wastewater. The recovered granules were subsequently applied to a UVA/H2O2 advanced oxidation process (AOP) to degrade Reactive Red 195 (RR195) dye wastewater, establishing an integrated wastewater mining and recycling technology.
Results showed the FBHC system effectively and simultaneously removed copper and molybdenum, with removal and crystallization efficiencies reaching 85–95% under appropriate conditions. Characterization confirmed the recovered homogeneous granules were primarily basic copper molybdate Cu3(MoO4)2(OH)2, demonstrating the successful conversion of aqueous heavy metals into solid granules with reuse potential.
When utilized as catalytic materials in the UVA/H2O2 system, the Cu3(MoO4)2(OH)2 granules exhibited excellent catalytic activity, achieving up to 99% RR195 removal. Mechanistic investigations revealed that this degradation primarily originated from the synergistic effects of heterogeneous catalysis and homogeneous Fenton-like reactions triggered by partial metal leaching. Furthermore, radical scavenging experiments suggested that superoxide/hydroperoxyl radicals (·O2-/HO2·) were among the key reactive oxygen species.
Overall, this study verifies that FBHC technology can effectively treat heavy metal wastewater and recover functional basic copper molybdate granules. Demonstrating their viability as an AOP catalyst, this research illustrates the dual potential of wastewater resource recovery and the high-value utilization of by-products.

[1] F. Fu and Q. Wang, "Removal of heavy metal ions from wastewaters: a review," Journal of environmental management, vol. 92, no. 3, pp. 407–418, 2011.
[2] N. A. Qasem, R. H. Mohammed, and D. U. Lawal, "Removal of heavy metal ions from wastewater: a comprehensive and critical review," Npj Clean Water, vol. 4, no. 1, p. 36, 2021.
[3] National Minerals Information Center. "Copper Statistics and Information." U.S. Geological Survey. https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/copper-statistics-and-information
[4] National Minerals Information Center. "Molybdenum Statistics and Information." U.S. Geological Survey. https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/molybdenum-statistics-and-information
[5] P.-L. Liao, L. W. Effendi, N. N. N. Mahasti, K.-Y. Chang, and Y.-H. Huang, "Homogeneous crystallization of nickel as Ni₃S₄ in a fluidized bed reactor with supersaturation control," Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, vol. 12, no. 6, p. 114596, 2024.
[6] L. L. E. Bayon, F. C. Ballesteros Jr, S. Garcia-Segura, and M.-C. Lu, "Water reuse nexus with resource recovery: On the fluidized-bed homogeneous crystallization of copper and phosphate from semiconductor wastewater," Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 236, p. 117705, 2019.
[7] J.-H. Lin, K.-Y. Chang, P.-L. Liao, and Y.-H. Huang, "Enhanced precipitation of CaMoO4 for continuous recovery of molybdenum from Mo-contained wastewater and application to fluidized bed homogeneous crystallization," Journal of Water Process Engineering, vol. 65, p. 105758, 2024.
[8] K. Lertratwattana, P. Kemacheevakul, S. Garcia-Segura, and M.-C. Lu, "Recovery of copper salts by fluidized-bed homogeneous granulation process: High selectivity on malachite crystallization," Hydrometallurgy, vol. 186, pp. 66–72, 2019.
[9] B. Swain et al., "Synthesis of Cu 3 (MoO 4) 2 (OH) 2 nanostructures by simple aqueous precipitation: understanding the fundamental chemistry and growth mechanism," CrystEngComm, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 154–165, 2017.
[10] L. R. Milam and R. P. Planalp, "Bimetallic Fenton-like catalysts in the remediation of dyes," Colorants, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 1–16, 2023.
[11] Maximize Market Research. "Molybdenum Market." Maximize Market Research. https://www.maximizemarketresearch.com/market-report/global-molybdenum-market/104418/
[12] Maximize Market Research. "Global Copper Market Size Forecast 2032 with Pricing, Supply chain, Distribution Channels and Competitive Landscape." Maximize Market Research. https://www.maximizemarketresearch.com/market-report/copper-market/29798/
[13] International Molybdenum Association. "Molybdenum mining & processing." International Molybdenum Association. https://www.imoa.info/molybdenum/molybdenum-mining-processing.php
[14] Natural Resources Canada. "Copper facts." Government of Canada. https://natural-resources.canada.ca/minerals-mining/mining-data-statistics-analysis/minerals-metals-facts/copper-facts
[15] F. Cverna, ASM Ready Reference: Thermal properties of metals. Asm International, 2002.
[16] A. I. H. Committee, ASM Handbook: Properties and selection : nonferrous alloys and special-purpose materials. ASM International, 1990.
[17] M. Pourbaix, "Atlas of electrochemical equilibria in aqueous solutions," (No Title), 1974.
[18] M. T. Pope, Y. Jeannin, and M. Fournier, Heteropoly and isopoly oxometalates. Springer, 1983.
[19] N. Greenwood and A. Earnshaw, Chemistry of the elements 2nd Edition. Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997.
[20] R. Abejón, "An overview to technical solutions for molybdenum removal: Perspective from the analysis of the scientific literature on molybdenum and drinking water (1990–2019)," Water, vol. 14, no. 13, p. 2108, 2022.
[21] U.S. Geological Survey, "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025: Molybdenum," U.S. Geological Survey, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2025/mcs2025-molybdenum.pdf
[22] A. R. Lansdown, Molybdenum disulphide lubrication. Elsevier, 1999.
[23] J. Sinko, "Challenges of chromate inhibitor pigments replacement in organic coatings," Progress in organic coatings, vol. 42, no. 3-4, pp. 267–282, 2001.
[24] M. Ohring, Materials science of thin films: depositon and structure. Academic press, 2002.
[25] B. A. Wills and J. Finch, Wills' Mineral Processing Technology: An Introduction to the Practical Aspects of Ore Treatment and Mineral Recovery. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2015.
[26] M. Marafi and A. Stanislaus, "Spent hydroprocessing catalyst management: A review: Part II. Advances in metal recovery and safe disposal methods," Resources, Conservation and Recycling, vol. 53, no. 1-2, pp. 1–26, 2008.
[27] C. Mulligan, R. Yong, and B. Gibbs, "Remediation technologies for metal-contaminated soils and groundwater: an evaluation," Engineering geology, vol. 60, no. 1-4, pp. 193–207, 2001.
[28] L. Presta, M. Fondi, G. Emiliani, and R. Fani, "Molybdenum Cofactor-Containing Enzymes and Pathways," in Molybdenum Cofactors and Their role in the Evolution of Metabolic Pathways: Springer, 2015, pp. 33–52.
[29] M. Tejada-Jimenez, A. Chamizo-Ampudia, V. Calatrava, A. Galvan, E. Fernandez, and A. Llamas, "From the eukaryotic molybdenum cofactor biosynthesis to the moonlighting enzyme mARC," Molecules, vol. 23, no. 12, p. 3287, 2018.
[30] O. o. D. S. National Institutes of Health. "Molybdenum: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals." National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Molybdenum-HealthProfessional/
[31] M. Nordberg, G. F. Nordberg, B. A. Fowler, and L. Friberg, Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals. Elsevier Science, 2011.
[32] A. Oskarsson and M. Kippler, "Molybdenum–a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023," Food & Nutrition Research, vol. 67, p. 10.29219/fnr. v67. 10326, 2023.
[33] W. H. Organization, "Molybdenum in drinking-water: background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality," World Health Organization, 2003.
[34] (2024). 飲用水水質標準. [Online] Available: https://oaout.moenv.gov.tw/law/LawContent.aspx?id=FL015512
[35] (2024). 放流水標準. [Online] Available: https://oaout.moenv.gov.tw/law/LawContent.aspx?id=FL015489
[36] J. Zhang, X. Ma, S. Wang, M. A. Gomez, S. Yao, and Y. Jia, "The effects of pH, neutralizing reagent and co-ions on Mo (VI) removal and speciation in Fe (III)–Mo (VI) coprecipitation process," Applied Geochemistry, vol. 134, p. 105091, 2021.
[37] Y. Huang et al., "Clean and deep separation of molybdenum and rhenium from ultra-low concentration solutions via vapidly stepwise selective coagulation and flocculation precipitation," Separation and Purification Technology, vol. 267, p. 118632, 2021.
[38] P. Swinkels et al., "Conceptual process design as a prerequisite for solving environmental problems; a case study of molybdenum removal and recovery from wastewater," Minerals engineering, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 205–215, 2004.
[39] N. Xu, C. Christodoulatos, and W. Braida, "Modeling the competitive effect of phosphate, sulfate, silicate, and tungstate anions on the adsorption of molybdate onto goethite," Chemosphere, vol. 64, no. 8, pp. 1325–1333, 2006.
[40] A. Davantès, D. Costa, B. Sallman, S. Rakshit, and G. Lefèvre, "Surface polymerization of Mo (VI) and W (VI) anions on hematite revealed by in situ infrared spectroscopy and DFT+ U theoretical study," The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, vol. 121, no. 1, pp. 324–332, 2017.
[41] L. Wu, Z. Luo, H. Jiang, Z. Zhao, and W. Geng, "Selective and rapid removal of Mo (VI) from water using functionalized Fe3O4-based Mo (VI) ion-imprinted polymer," Water Science and Technology, vol. 83, no. 2, pp. 435–448, 2021.
[42] F. G. Helfferich, Ion exchange. Courier Corporation, 1995.
[43] 沈威政, "以離子交換樹脂吸附鉬(VI)離子之研究," 碩士, 化學工程與材料工程系, 國立高雄應用科技大學, 高雄市, 2011. [Online]. Available: https://hdl.handle.net/11296/3gaprw
[44] S. Pietrzyk and B. Tora, "Trends in global copper mining–a review," in IOP conference series: materials science and engineering, 2018, vol. 427, no. 1: IOP Publishing, p. 012002.
[45] G. M. Mudd and S. M. Jowitt, "Growing global copper resources, reserves and production: Discovery is not the only control on supply," Economic Geology, vol. 113, no. 6, pp. 1235–1267, 2018.
[46] F. P. McCluskey, Power Modulation Investigation for High Temperature (175° C-200° C) Automotive Application. Oakridge National Laboratory, 2007.
[47] J. Y. Evans and J. W. Evans, "Electronic materials and properties," in Handbook of Electronic Package Design: CRC Press, 2018, pp. 727–789.
[48] S. Northey, S. Mohr, G. M. Mudd, Z. Weng, and D. Giurco, "Modelling future copper ore grade decline based on a detailed assessment of copper resources and mining," Resources, Conservation and Recycling, vol. 83, pp. 190–201, 2014.
[49] F. Czerwinski, "Critical minerals for zero-emission transportation," Materials, vol. 15, no. 16, p. 5539, 2022.
[50] W. Stumm and J. Morgan, "Aquatic Chemistry,’’3rd ed. Wiley, New York," 1996.
[51] H.-W. Kim, "Recent trends in copper metallization," Electronics, vol. 11, no. 18, p. 2914, 2022.
[52] J. Reid, "Copper electrodeposition: principles and recent progress," Japanese journal of applied physics, vol. 40, no. 4S, p. 2650, 2001.
[53] M. T. Kamar, H. Elattar, A. S. Mahmoud, R. W. Peters, and M. K. Mostafa, "A critical review of state-of-the-art technologies for electroplating wastewater treatment," International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, vol. 104, no. 16, pp. 4143–4176, 2024.
[54] S. Rajoria, M. Vashishtha, and V. K. Sangal, "Treatment of electroplating industry wastewater: a review on the various techniques," Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 29, no. 48, pp. 72196–72246, 2022.
[55] L. Gurreri, A. Tamburini, A. Cipollina, and G. Micale, "Electrodialysis applications in wastewater treatment for environmental protection and resources recovery: A systematic review on progress and perspectives," Membranes, vol. 10, no. 7, p. 146, 2020.
[56] B. Zhang, Y. Yang, and D. W. Zhang, "A Copper-Molybdenum Etchant with Wide Process Window, Long Bath Life and High Stability for Thin Film Transistor Liquid Crystal Display Applications," Materials, vol. 18, no. 8, p. 1795, 2025.
[57] B. H. S. S. H. Lee et al., "P‐61: A Study on the Galvanic Reaction between Cu and Mo as Well as MoW for TFT‐LCDs by Using a Zero‐Resistance Ammeter," in SID Symposium Digest of Technical Papers, 2009, vol. 40, no. 1: Wiley Online Library, pp. 1320–1323.
[58] S. Lutsenko, S. Roy, and P. Tsvetkov, "Mammalian copper homeostasis: physiological roles and molecular mechanisms," Physiological reviews, vol. 105, no. 1, pp. 441–491, 2025.
[59] M. F. Escobedo-Monge, E. Barrado, J. Parodi-Román, M. A. Escobedo-Monge, M. C. Torres-Hinojal, and J. M. Marugán-Miguelsanz, "Copper/zinc ratio in childhood and adolescence: a review," Metabolites, vol. 13, no. 1, p. 82, 2023.
[60] J. Chen, Y. Jiang, H. Shi, Y. Peng, X. Fan, and C. Li, "The molecular mechanisms of copper metabolism and its roles in human diseases," Pflügers Archiv-European Journal of Physiology, vol. 472, no. 10, pp. 1415–1429, 2020.
[61] S. C. o. t. S. E. o. D. R. Intakes, S. o. Interpretation, U. o. D. R. Intakes, S. o. U. R. L. o. Nutrients, and P. o. Micronutrients, Dietary reference intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc. National Academies Press, 2002.
[62] U. D. o. Health and H. Services, "Toxicological Profile for Copper, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry," ed: Division of Toxicology/Toxicology Information Branch, Atlanta, Georgia, 2004.
[63] C. A. Mebane, "Bioavailability and toxicity models of copper to freshwater life: The state of regulatory science," Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, vol. 42, no. 12, pp. 2529–2563, 2023.
[64] N. Malhotra, T.-R. Ger, B. Uapipatanakul, J.-C. Huang, K. H.-C. Chen, and C.-D. Hsiao, "Review of copper and copper nanoparticle toxicity in fish," Nanomaterials, vol. 10, no. 6, p. 1126, 2020.
[65] L. Fewtrell, D. Kay, and S. MacGill, "A review of the science behind drinking water standards for copper," International journal of environmental health research, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 161–167, 2001.
[66] N. R. Council, C. o. L. Sciences, B. o. E. Studies, and C. o. C. i. D. Water, "Copper in drinking water," 2000.
[67] Y. Dong et al., "A combined microbial desalination cell and electrodialysis system for copper-containing wastewater treatment and high-salinity-water desalination," Journal of Hazardous materials, vol. 321, pp. 307–315, 2017.
[68] S. Choudhury, S. Yu, and Y. Haimes, "Assessing the risk of noncompliance in wastewater treatment," Water Science and Technology, vol. 26, no. 5-6, pp. 1411–1420, 1992.
[69] K. G. N. Quiton, Y.-H. Huang, and M.-C. Lu, "Recovery of cobalt and copper from single-and co-contaminated simulated electroplating wastewater via carbonate and hydroxide precipitation," Sustainable Environment Research, vol. 32, no. 1, p. 31, 2022.
[70] T. A. Kurniawan, G. Y. Chan, W.-H. Lo, and S. Babel, "Physico–chemical treatment techniques for wastewater laden with heavy metals," Chemical engineering journal, vol. 118, no. 1-2, pp. 83–98, 2006.
[71] L. K. Wang, M.-H. S. Wang, N. K. Shammas, and H. H. Hahn, "Physicochemical treatment consisting of chemical coagulation, precipitation, sedimentation, and flotation," in Integrated natural resources research: Springer, 2021, pp. 265–397.
[72] D. Fang, R. Zhang, W. Deng, and J. Li, "Highly efficient removal of Cu (II), Zn (II), Ni (II) and Fe (II) from electroplating wastewater using sulphide from sulphidogenic bioreactor effluent," Environmental technology, vol. 33, no. 15, pp. 1709–1715, 2012.
[73] A. Pohl, "Removal of heavy metal ions from water and wastewaters by sulfur-containing precipitation agents," Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, vol. 231, no. 10, p. 503, 2020.
[74] N. Sheraz, A. Shah, A. Haleem, and F. J. Iftikhar, "Comprehensive assessment of carbon-, biomaterial-and inorganic-based adsorbents for the removal of the most hazardous heavy metal ions from wastewater," RSC advances, vol. 14, no. 16, pp. 11284–11310, 2024.
[75] Y. Liu, H. Wang, Y. Cui, and N. Chen, "Removal of copper ions from wastewater: a review," International journal of environmental research and public health, vol. 20, no. 5, p. 3885, 2023.
[76] G. Kashi, "Electrocoagulation/flotation process for removing copper from an aqueous environment," Scientific Reports, vol. 13, no. 1, p. 13334, 2023.
[77] K. Castro and R. Abejón, "Removal of heavy metals from wastewaters and other aqueous streams by pressure-driven membrane technologies: An outlook on reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, ultrafiltration and microfiltration potential from a bibliometric analysis," Membranes, vol. 14, no. 8, p. 180, 2024.
[78] B. Al-Rashdi, D. Johnson, and N. Hilal, "Removal of heavy metal ions by nanofiltration," Desalination, vol. 315, pp. 2–17, 2013.
[79] P. Xu, T. Y. Cath, A. P. Robertson, M. Reinhard, J. O. Leckie, and J. E. Drewes, "Critical review of desalination concentrate management, treatment and beneficial use," Environmental Engineering Science, vol. 30, no. 8, pp. 502–514, 2013.
[80] A. Mersmann, Crystallization technology handbook. CRC press, 2001.
[81] J. Torres, L. Gonzatto, G. Peinado, C. Kremer, and E. Kremer, "Interaction of molybdenum (VI) oxyanions with+ 2 metal cations," Journal of Solution Chemistry, vol. 43, no. 9, pp. 1687–1700, 2014.
[82] J. D. Cuppett, S. E. Duncan, and A. M. Dietrich, "Evaluation of copper speciation and water quality factors that affect aqueous copper tasting response," Chemical senses, vol. 31, no. 7, pp. 689–697, 2006.
[83] R. M. Ismagilova, E. S. Zhitova, A. A. Zolotarev, and S. V. Krivovichev, "Jahn–Teller distortion and thermal expansion anisotropy: temperature-dependent behavior of lindgrenite, Cu3 (MoO4) 2 (OH) 2, szenicsite, Cu3 (MoO4)(OH) 4, and cupromolybdite, Cu3O (MoO4) 2," Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 437–447, 2019.
[84] G. Min, Y. Bin, W. Lin-hong, and H. He-yong, "Hydrothermal synthesis and thermal stability of natural mineral lindgrenite," Chemical Research in Chinese Universities, vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 679–683, 2006.
[85] D. L. Parkhurst and C. Appelo, "Description of input and examples for PHREEQC version 3: a computer program for speciation, batch-reaction, one-dimensional transport, and inverse geochemical calculations," US Geological Survey, 2328-7055, 2013.
[86] M. M. Seckler, "Crystallization in fluidized bed reactors: from fundamental knowledge to full-scale applications," Crystals, vol. 12, no. 11, p. 1541, 2022.
[87] C. M. Bethke, Geochemical and biogeochemical reaction modeling. Cambridge university press, 2022.
[88] S. A. Al-Saydeh, M. H. El-Naas, and S. J. Zaidi, "Copper removal from industrial wastewater: A comprehensive review," Journal of industrial and engineering chemistry, vol. 56, pp. 35–44, 2017.
[89] L. Gui, H. Yang, H. Huang, C. Hu, Y. Feng, and X. Wang, "Liquid solid fluidized bed crystallization granulation technology: Development, applications, properties, and prospects," Journal of Water Process Engineering, vol. 45, p. 102513, 2022.
[90] A. Graveland, J. Van Dijk, P. De Moel, and J. Oomen, "Developments in water softening by means of pellet reactors," Journal‐American Water Works Association, vol. 75, no. 12, pp. 619–625, 1983.
[91] A. E. Nielsen and J. M. Toft, "Electrolyte crystal growth kinetics," Journal of crystal growth, vol. 67, no. 2, pp. 278–288, 1984.
[92] W. A. Khan, U. Asghar, and I. Shamshad, "Effect of initial static bed height and liquid superficial velocity on the minimum fluidization velocity (Umf) and pressure drop for the bed of semolina particles in liquid-solid fluidization," J Chem Eng Process Technol, vol. 7, no. 312, pp. 30–150, 2016.
[93] C.-S. Chen, Y.-J. Shih, and Y.-H. Huang, "Remediation of lead (Pb (II)) wastewater through recovery of lead carbonate in a fluidized-bed homogeneous crystallization (FBHC) system," Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 279, pp. 120–128, 2015.
[94] R. Priambodo, Y.-J. Shih, and Y.-H. Huang, "Phosphorus recovery as ferrous phosphate (vivianite) from wastewater produced in manufacture of thin film transistor-liquid crystal displays (TFT-LCD) by a fluidized bed crystallizer (FBC)," RSC advances, vol. 7, no. 65, pp. 40819–40828, 2017.
[95] J. W. Mullin, Crystallization. Elsevier, 2001.
[96] O. Söhnel and J. Garside, "Precipitation: basic principles and industrial applications," (No Title), 1992.
[97] J. A. Dirksen and T. Ring, "Fundamentals of crystallization: kinetic effects on particle size distributions and morphology," Chemical Engineering Science, vol. 46, no. 10, pp. 2389–2427, 1991.
[98] A. E. Nielsen, "Electrolyte crystal growth mechanisms," Journal of Crystal Growth, vol. 67, no. 2, pp. 289–310, 1984.
[99] V. E. Valderama Jr, F. C. Ballesteros Jr, S. Garcia-Segura, and M.-C. Lu, "Transforming wastewater into resources: A review of Fluidized-Bed Homogeneous Crystallization for sustainable treatment and recovery," Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, p. 118702, 2025.
[100] L. Li, X. Ye, H. Liu, R. Lu, B. Tang, and S. Zhang, "Multistep Continuous Heterogeneous Synthesis of CI Reactive Red 195 and Safety Evaluation of the Continuous Diazotization Process," Organic Process Research & Development, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 1168–1178, 2025.
[101] N. Djafarzadeh, M. Zarei, B. Behjati, and A. Khataee, "Optimization of the oxalate catalyzed photoelectro-Fenton process under visible light for removal of Reactive Red 195 using a carbon paper cathode," Research on Chemical Intermediates, vol. 39, no. 7, pp. 3355–3369, 2013.
[102] S. Yi, S. Sun, Y. Deng, Y. Ye, and X. Jian, "Removal and recovery of CI reactive red 195 from effluent by solvent extraction using reverse micelles," Textile Research Journal, vol. 85, no. 10, pp. 1095–1103, 2015.
[103] A. P. Periyasamy, S. Dutta, and A. R. Tehrani-Bagha, "Solvent-assisted salt-free reactive dyeing of cotton fabric," Cellulose, vol. 31, no. 11, pp. 7101–7118, 2024.
[104] D. M. Lewis, "Developments in the chemistry of reactive dyes and their application processes," Coloration Technology, vol. 130, no. 6, pp. 382–412, 2014.
[105] M. A. Uddin, M. S. Begum, M. Ashraf, A. K. Azad, A. C. Adhikary, and M. S. Hossain, "Water and chemical consumption in the textile processing industry of Bangladesh," PLOS Sustainability and Transformation, vol. 2, no. 7, p. e0000072, 2023.
[106] J. Lin et al., "Environmental impacts and remediation of dye-containing wastewater," Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, vol. 4, no. 11, pp. 785–803, 2023.
[107] K.-T. Chung and C. E. Cerniglia, "Mutagenicity of azo dyes: structure-activity relationships," Mutation Research/Reviews in Genetic Toxicology, vol. 277, no. 3, pp. 201–220, 1992.
[108] M. Yadav and A. L. Singh, "Decolourization and detoxification of Reactive Red-195 azo dye by Staphylococcus caprae isolated from textile effluent," Folia Microbiologica, vol. 70, no. 1, pp. 115–126, 2025.
[109] A. C. R. Ngo and D. Tischler, "Microbial degradation of azo dyes: approaches and prospects for a hazard-free conversion by microorganisms," International journal of environmental research and public health, vol. 19, no. 8, p. 4740, 2022.
[110] C. Kao, M. Chou, W. Fang, B. Liu, and B. Huang, "Regulating colored textile wastewater by 3/31 wavelength admi methods in Taiwan," Chemosphere, vol. 44, no. 5, pp. 1055–1063, 2001.
[111] N. Dafale, S. Wate, S. Meshram, and N. R. Neti, "Bioremediation of wastewater containing azo dyes through sequential anaerobic–aerobic bioreactor system and its biodiversity," Environmental Reviews, vol. 18, no. NA, pp. 21–36, 2010.
[112] R. Birmole, A. Parkar, and K. Aruna, "Biodegradation of Reactive Red 195 By A Novel Strain Enterococcus casseliflavus RDB_4 Isolated from Textile Effluent," Nature Environment & Pollution Technology, vol. 18, no. 1, 2019.
[113] S. N. Kamati, J. Yan, and J. Fan, "A review on progresses in reactive dye-containing wastewater treatment," Water Practice & Technology, vol. 19, no. 7, pp. 2712–2733, 2024.
[114] V. Belessi, G. Romanos, N. Boukos, D. Lambropoulou, and C. Trapalis, "Removal of Reactive Red 195 from aqueous solutions by adsorption on the surface of TiO2 nanoparticles," Journal of hazardous materials, vol. 170, no. 2-3, pp. 836–844, 2009.
[115] D. H. da Silva Santos et al., "Regeneration of dye-saturated activated carbon through advanced oxidative processes: A review," Heliyon, vol. 8, no. 8, 2022.
[116] C. Y. Teh, P. M. Budiman, K. P. Y. Shak, and T. Y. Wu, "Recent advancement of coagulation–flocculation and its application in wastewater treatment," Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, vol. 55, no. 16, pp. 4363–4389, 2016.
[117] R. Jiraratananon, A. Sungpet, and P. Luangsowan, "Performance evaluation of nanofiltration membranes for treatment of effluents containing reactive dye and salt," Desalination, vol. 130, no. 2, pp. 177–183, 2000.
[118] C. Thamaraiselvan and M. Noel, "Membrane processes for dye wastewater treatment: recent progress in fouling control," Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 45, no. 10, pp. 1007–1040, 2015.
[119] N. Jahan et al., "A comprehensive review on the sustainable treatment of textile wastewater: zero liquid discharge and resource recovery perspectives," Sustainability, vol. 14, no. 22, p. 15398, 2022.
[120] J. J. Pignatello, E. Oliveros, and A. MacKay, "Advanced oxidation processes for organic contaminant destruction based on the Fenton reaction and related chemistry," Critical reviews in environmental science and technology, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 1–84, 2006.
[121] P. K. Pandis et al., "Key points of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for wastewater, organic pollutants and pharmaceutical waste treatment: A mini review," ChemEngineering, vol. 6, no. 1, p. 8, 2022.
[122] P. Nidheesh, "Heterogeneous Fenton catalysts for the abatement of organic pollutants from aqueous solution: a review," Rsc Advances, vol. 5, no. 51, pp. 40552–40577, 2015.
[123] B. H. Bielski, D. E. Cabelli, R. L. Arudi, and A. B. Ross, "Reactivity of HO2/O− 2 radicals in aqueous solution," Journal of physical and chemical reference data, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 1041–1100, 1985.
[124] N. J. Campbell, A. C. Dengel, C. J. Edwards, and W. P. Griffith, "Studies on transition metal peroxo complexes. Part 8. The nature of peroxomolybdates and peroxotungstates in aqueous solution," Journal of the Chemical Society, Dalton Transactions, no. 6, pp. 1203–1208, 1989.
[125] S. Goldstein, D. Meyerstein, and G. Czapski, "The fenton reagents," Free radical biology and medicine, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 435–445, 1993.
[126] A. N. Pham, G. Xing, C. J. Miller, and T. D. Waite, "Fenton-like copper redox chemistry revisited: Hydrogen peroxide and superoxide mediation of copper-catalyzed oxidant production," Journal of catalysis, vol. 301, pp. 54–64, 2013.
[127] A. E. Murekhina, D. N. Yarullin, M. A. Sovina, P. A. Kitaev, and G. A. Gamov, "Copper (II)-catalyzed oxidation of ascorbic acid: Ionic strength effect and analytical use in aqueous solution," Inorganics, vol. 10, no. 7, p. 102, 2022.
[128] R. Hassan, R. D. Abdel‑Rahim, G. A. Gouda, and A. M. Nagiub, "Hydrothermal synthesis and optimization of hierarchical copper molybdate nanostructures for photocatalytic degradation of crystal violet and antimicrobial applications," Scientific Reports, 2026.
[129] A. D. Bokare and W. Choi, "Review of iron-free Fenton-like systems for activating H2O2 in advanced oxidation processes," Journal of hazardous materials, vol. 275, pp. 121–135, 2014.
[130] J. Mitra and S. Sarkar, "Photoinduced electron transfer from the oxo–Mo IV selenolato complex to oxygen," New Journal of Chemistry, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 626–633, 2016.
[131] D. Langmuir, Aqueous environmental geochemistry. New Jersey, 1997.
[132] M. R. Schock, D. A. Lytle, and J. A. Clement, "Effects of pH, carbonate, orthophosphate, and redox potential on cuprosolvency," in CORROSION 1995, 1995: Association for Materials Protection and Performance, pp. 1–29.
[133] A. J. Paulson and D. R. Kester, "Copper (II) ion hydrolysis in aqueous solution," Journal of Solution Chemistry, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 269–277, 1980.
[134] J. A. Dean, Lange's handbook of chemistry. 1999.
[135] D. Villa-Gomez, H. Ababneh, S. Papirio, D. Rousseau, and P. Lens, "Effect of sulfide concentration on the location of the metal precipitates in inversed fluidized bed reactors," Journal of hazardous materials, vol. 192, no. 1, pp. 200–207, 2011.
[136] C.-I. Lee, W.-F. Yang, and C.-I. Hsieh, "Removal of Cu (II) from aqueous solution in a fluidized-bed reactor," Chemosphere, vol. 57, no. 9, pp. 1173–1180, 2004.
[137] G. Singh, A. Kushwaha, and M. Sharma, "Electrochemistry of rGO-Cu3H2Mo2O10 cuboidal nanostructures: An effective detection of neurotransmitter dopamine in blood serum sample," Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry, vol. 880, p. 114889, 2021.
[138] J. F. Watts and J. Wolstenholme, An introduction to surface analysis by XPS and AES. John Wiley & Sons, 2019.
[139] K. Hada, M. Nagai, and S. Omi, "XPS and TPR Studies of Nitrided Molybdena− Alumina," The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, vol. 104, no. 9, pp. 2090–2098, 2000.
[140] M. C. Biesinger, B. P. Payne, A. P. Grosvenor, L. W. Lau, A. R. Gerson, and R. S. C. Smart, "Resolving surface chemical states in XPS analysis of first row transition metals, oxides and hydroxides: Cr, Mn, Fe, Co and Ni," Applied Surface Science, vol. 257, no. 7, pp. 2717–2730, 2011.
[141] J. Li et al., "Self-supported molybdenum nickel oxide catalytic electrode designed via molecular cluster-mediated electroplating and electrochemical activation for an efficient and durable oxygen evolution reaction," Journal of colloid and interface science, vol. 628, pp. 607–618, 2022.
[142] K. Pavani and A. Ramanan, "Influence of 2‐Aminopyridine on the Formation of Molybdates under Hydrothermal Conditions," ed: Wiley Online Library, 2005.
[143] A. Bayat, A. R. Mahjoub, and M. M. Amini, "Various Architectures of Colloidal Cu3 (MoO4) 2 (OH) 2 and Cu3Mo2O9; Thermal Stability, Photoluminescence and Magnetic Properties of Cu3 (MoO4) 2 (OH) 2 and Cu3Mo2O9 Nanosheets," arXiv preprint arXiv:2502.05940, 2025.
[144] S. Wilayat et al., "Degradation of malachite green by UV/H2O2 and UV/H2O2/Fe2+ processes: kinetics and mechanism," Frontiers in Chemistry, vol. 12, p. 1467438, 2024.
[145] J. Cruywagen, "Protonation, oligomerization, and condensation reactions of vanadate (V), molybdate (VI), and tungstate (VI)," in Advances in inorganic chemistry, vol. 49: Elsevier, 1999, pp. 127–182.