本研究運用高層理論(upper echelons theory)及動態競爭理論(competitive dynamics perspective)探討競爭積極性在高階經營團隊自我效能與組織績效間的中介角色，同時也檢視團隊信任對高階經營團隊自我效能與競爭積極性關係的調節效果。本研究分析層次為廠商，經由直接收集148家台灣上市櫃公司、377位高階主管的問卷資料進行分析。 研究結果顯示，高階經營團隊自我效能會正向影響競爭積極性，競爭積極性也會正向影響組織績效，同時，競爭積極性對高階經營團隊自我效能與組織績效的關係具有部分中介效果；然而，團隊信任在高階經營團隊自我效能與競爭積極性間的干擾效果不顯著。
本研究對高階經營團隊與動態競爭研究具有重要的理論意義。第一，有別於以往自我效能的文獻多聚焦於個人或工作團隊層次，本研究則檢視高階經營團隊層次的自我效能，因而可以補足相關研究的不足。再者，以往有關經營團隊的研究，大多運用人口統計變數作為團隊心理或社會特質的代理變數，本研究採用問卷方式直接對高階經營團隊成員進行心理測量，在信、效度上可以更確實地掌控。另一方面，本研究檢視高階經營團隊心理特質對競爭積極性的影響，也填補了以往動態競爭研究過於聚焦於市場或組織因素的缺口，同時有效連結了動態競爭與高階團隊兩個重要的策略管理理論。最後，本研究也討論了研究結果的實務意涵與未來研究方向。

SUMMARY
This research employs the upper-echelons and competitive dynamics perspectives to investigate the mediating role of competitive aggressiveness between top management team (TMT) self-efficacy and firm performance. The moderating effect of TMT trust on the relationship between TMT self-efficacy and competitive aggressiveness is also explored. Based on the survey data collected from 377 executives in 148 firms listed in TSE, OTC, ROT, the analytical results shows that TMT self-efficacy positively affects competitive aggressiveness, which in turn positively affects firm performance. The mediating role of competitive aggressiveness is also supported. Nonetheless, the moderating effect of TMT trust is not significant although it indeed exerts a positively direct effect on competitive aggressiveness.

The study has significant theoretical implications. First of all, prior research focused mainly on individual-level self-efficacy or workplace-team collective efficacy. By exploring TMT-level efficacy, the research shed light on the stream of team efficacy research. Second, prior TMT research tends to use demographical composition as proxies of TMT socio-psychological characteristics. By directly collecting data from TMT members and evaluate their psychometric attributes, the study can advance the reliabilities and validities of research findings. Third, an examination of TMT socio-cognitive attributes as determinants of competitive aggressiveness, the study also adds value to the competitive dynamics perspective, which thus far remains focus largely on market or organizational antecedents of competitive actions. Such an approach also juxtaposes the two promising theories of upper echelons and competitive dynamics in the field of strategic management. Implications for practices and future directions were discussed as well.

Keyword: Upper-echelons Perspective, Top Management Team (TMT), Competitive Dynamics Perspective, TMT Self-efficacy, Competitive Aggressiveness, TMT Trust

一、中文部分
方妙玲 (2007)：倫理領導、信任、個人需求實現對組織承諾的影響。企業管理
學報 2007 PP 1-40
方至民 (2003)：企業競爭優勢，台北，前程
林宛儀 (2009)：人力資本投資與顧客資本之中介機制—創新能力與競爭積極性
的角色，國立中正大學勞工研究所碩士論文
波特 (1999)：競爭優勢，天下文化出版社
洪雋皓 (2015)：執行長與經營團隊之關係差異程度對組織績效的影響: 檢視團隊
信任的中介角色與競爭張力的調節效果，國立中山大學企業管理學系碩
士論文
姜定宇、丁捷、林伶瑾 (2012)：家長式領導與部屬效能: 信任主管與不信任主管
的中介效果。中華心理學刊 2012 PP269-291
高邦翔 (2014)：高階經營團隊組成對國際多角化的影響，天主教輔仁大學企業管理研究所碩士論文
陳明哲、林豪傑、侯勝宗、喬友慶(2010) ：動態競爭。台北，智勝文化
黃家齊、黃荷婷 (2006)：團隊成員目標導向對於自我與集體效能及創新之影響—
一個多層次研究。管理學報 2006 PP 327-346
張慧芳 (1995) ：領導者與部屬間信任格局的決定要素與行為效果之探討，國立
臺灣大學心理學研究所碩士論文
盧俊宏（1995）：運動心理學。台北：師大書苑
 
二、英文部分
Alper, S., Tjosvold, D., & Law, K.S. (1998). Interdependence and controversy in
group decision making: antecedents to effective self-managing teams.
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 74(1): pp. 33-52.
Amason, A. C., & Mooney, A. C. (1999). The effects of past performance on top
management team conflict in strategic decision making. International Journal of
Conflict Management, 10: pp. 340–359
Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy Mechanism in Human Agency. American
Psychologist, 37: pp. 122-147.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive
Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ; Prentice-Hall
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.
Psychologist Review, 84: pp. 191-215.
Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28(2): pp. 117-148.
Bantel, K. A., & Jackson, S. E. (1989). Top management and innovation in
banking: Does the composition of the top team make a difference? Strategic
Management Journal, 10: pp. 107-124
Barnard, C.I. (1938). The Functions of the Executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Barney, J. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of
Management, 17: pp. 99-120.
Bowen, D.E. & Ostroff, C. (2004). Understanding HRM-firm performance linkages:
The role of “Strength” of the HRM system. Academy of Management Review,
29: pp. 203-221
Bradach, J. L., & Eccles, R. G. (1989). Price, authority, and trust: From ideal types to
plural forms. Annual review of sociology: pp. 97-118.
Caldwell, C., and Clapham, S. E. (2003). Organizational Trustworthiness: An
International Perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, Vol.47, No.4,
pp.349-364.
Carmeli, A., Schaubroeck, J., & Tishler, A. (2011). How CEO empowering leadership
shapes top management team processes: Implications for firm performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(2), pp.399–411
Carpenter, M. A. (2002). The Implications of Strategy and Social Context For the
Relationship between Top Management Heterogeneity and Firm Performance.
Strategic Management Journal 23: pp.275-284.
Carpenter M, Pollock T, Leary M. (2003). Governance, the experience of principals
and agents, and global strategic intent. Strateg Manag J; 24:803–20
Chen, G. and P. D. Bliese. (2002). The Role of Different Levels of Leadership in
Predicting Self- and Collective Efficacy: Evidence for Discontinuity. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 87: pp. 549-556.
Chen, G., S. M. Gully and D. Eden, (2001). Validation of a New General Self-efficacy Scale. Organizational Research Methods, 4(1): pp. 62-83.
Chen, M. J., Lin, H. C., & Michel, J. G. (2010). Navigating in a hypercompetitive environment: The roles of action aggressiveness and TMT integration. Strategic Management Journal, 31: pp. 1410-1430.
Chen, M. J., & Miller, D. (1994). Competitive attack, retaliation and performance: An
expectancy-valence framework. Strategic Management Journal, 15: pp. 85-102.
Chen, M. J., & MacMillan, I.C. (1992). Nonresponse and delayed response to
Competitive moves: The roles of competitor dependence and action irreversibility. Academy of Management Journal, 35(3): pp. 539-570.
Chen, M. J., Smith, K. G., & Grimm, C. M. (1992). Action characteristics as predictors of competitive responses. Management Science, 38(3): pp.439-455.
Chen, M. J. (1996). Competitor analysis and interfirm rivalry: Toward a theoretical
integration. Academy of Management Review, 21(1): pp. 100-134.
Chen, M. J., & Hambrick, D. C. (1995). Speed, stealth, and selective attack: How
small firms differ from large firms in competitive behavior. Academy of Management Journal, 38(2): pp. 453-482.
Chen, M. J., Su, K. S., & Tsai, W. P. (2007). Competitive tension: The
awareness-motivation-capability perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 50(1): pp. 101-118.
Dalton, D. R., & Kesner, I. F. (1985). Organizational performance as an antecedent of
inside/outside chief executive succession: An empirical assessment. Academy of
Management Journal, 28(4), pp. 749-762.
D'Aveni, R. A. (1994). Hypercompetition: Managing the dynamics of strategic
maneuvering. New York: Free Press.
D’Aveni, R. A. (1998). Waking up to the new era of hypercompetition. The
Washington Quarterly, 21 (1), pp. 183- 195.
Deutsch, M. (1958). Trust and suspicion. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2,
pp. 265-279.
Edmondson, A. (1999). Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly 44: pp. 350-383.
Ferrier, W. J. (2001). Navigating the competitive landscape: The drivers and
consequences of competitive aggressiveness. Academy of Management Journal,
44(4): pp. 858-877.
Ferrier, W. J., Smith, K. G., & Grimm, C. M. (1999). The role of competitive action
in market share erosion and industry dethronement: A study of industry leaders and challengers. Academy of Management Journal, 42(4): pp.372-388.
Finkelstein, S. (1988). Managerial orientations and organizational outcomes: The
moderating roles of managerial discretion and power. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University.
Finkelstein, S., & Hambrick, D. C. (1990). Top management team tenure and
organizational outcomes: The moderating role of managerial discretion. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35: pp. 484-503
Garg VK. Walters BA. Priem RL. (2003). Chief executive scanning emphases, environmental dynamism, and manufacturing firm performance. Strategic Management Journal 24(8): pp. 725-744.
Geringer, J.M., & Frayne, C.A. (1993). Self-efficacy, outcome expectancy and
performance of international joint venture general managers. Canadian Journal of
Administrative Science, 10: pp. 322–333.
Gibson, C. B., (1999). Do They Do What They Believe They Can? Group Efficacy and Group Effectiveness across Tasks and Cultures. Academy of Management Journal, 42: pp. 138-152.
Gully, S. M., K. A. Incalcaterra, A. Joshi and J. M. Beaubien, (2002). A
Meta-analysis of Team-efficacy, Potency, and Performance: Interdependence and Level of Analysis as Moderators of Observed Relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: pp. 819-832.
Guzzo, R.A., Yost, P.R., Campbell, R.J., & Shea, G.P. (1993). Potency in groups:
Articulating a construct. British Journal of Social Psychology, 32, pp. 87-106.
 
Hambrick DC. (1989). Guest editor's introduction: putting top managers back in the
strategy picture. Strategic Management Journal, Summer Special Issue 10: pp.
5-15.
Hambrick, D. C., & D’Aveni, R. A. (1992). Top team deterioration as part of the
downward spiral of large corporate bankruptcies. Management Science, 38:
pp. 1445-1466
Hambrick, D.C. (1995). Fragmentation and the other problems CEOs have with their
top management teams. California Management Review 37, p. 110.
Hambrick, D. C. (1998). Corporate coherence and the top management team. In D. C.
Hambrick, D. A. Nadler, & M. L. Tushman (Eds.), Navigating change: How CEOs, top teams and boards steer transformation (pp.123-140). Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Hambrick, D. C., Cho, T. S., & Chen, M. J. (1996). The influence of top management
team heterogeneity on firms’ competitive moves. Administrative Science
Quarterly, 41(4): pp. 659-684.
Hambrick, D., & S. Finkelstein (1987). Managerial discretion: A bridge between
polar views of organizational outcomes. In L. L. Cummings and B. Staw (eds.),
Research in Organizational Behavior, 9, pp. 269-406. Greenwich, CT: JAI
Press.
Hambrick, D. C., & Mason, P. A. (1984). Uper echelons: The organization as a
reflection of its top managers. Academy of Management Review, 9: pp.
193-206
Hequet, M. (1994). How relecommuting transforms work. Training, 3(11) pp.
56-61.
 
Hitt, M. A., Ireland, R. D., & Hoskisson, R. E. (2004). Strategic management:
competitiveness and globalization (6th ed.). Versailles, KY: Lachina Publishing Services.
Knight, D., C. C. Durham and E. A. Locke. (2001). The Relationship of Team Goals,
Incentives, and Efficacy to Strategic Risk, Tactical Implement, and Performance. Academy of Management Journal, 44: pp. 326-338.
Kirzner, I. M. (1973) Competition and Entrepreneurship. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press
Kramer, R. M. (1999). Trust and distrust in organizations: Emerging perspectives,
enduring questions. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Annual review of psychology, vol. 50: 569 –598. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews.
LeBreton, J. M., & Senter, J. L. (2008). Answers to 20 questions about interrater
reliability and interrater agreement. Organizational Research Methods, 11,
pp. 815-852.
Lindsley, D. H., D. J. Brass and J. B. Thomas. (1995). Efficacy-performance Spirals:
A Multilevel Perspective. Academy of Management Review, 20: pp. 645-678.
MacCrimmon, K. R. (1993). Do firm strategies exist? Strategic Management Journal,
14, pp. 113-130.
Marimuthu, M. & Kolandaisamy, I. (2009), ―Can Demographic Diversity in Top
Management Team Contribute for Greater Financial Performance? An Empirical Discussion‖, Journal of International Social Research, Vol. 2, No.8, pp. 273-286.
March JG, Simon HA. 1958. Organizations. Wiley: New York.
McCauley, D. and Kuhnert, K. (1992). A Theoretical Review and Empirical
Investigation of Employee Trust in Management. Public Administration Quarterly Vol. 16 No. 2, pp. 265-284.

McKnight, D. H., Sitkin, S. B., Chervany, N. L. (2001). How Familiarity and Social
Categorization Affect the Dimensionality of Trusting Beliefs: Two Tests. Unpublished working paper, Florida State University
Michel, J. G., & Hambrick, D.C. (1992). Diversification posture and top management
team characteristics. Academy of Management Journal, 35: pp. 9-37
Miller, D., and C. Droge, (1986). Psychological and Traditional Determinants of
Structure, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 31, pp. 539-560
Mintzberg, H., Ahlstrand, B., & Lampel, J. (2009). Strategy safari: A guided tour
through the wilds of strategic management, 2nd ed. London: Prentice Hall Financial Times.
Murray. A.I. (1989). Top management group heterogeneity and firm performance
Strategic Management Journal, 10: pp.125-141.
Penrose, E.T. (1985). The theory of the growth of the firm twenty five years after. In
Engwall, L. and Johanson, J. (eds.) Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis: Studia
Oeconomiae Negotiorum, 20. Uppsala: University of Uppsala.
Pfeffer, J. (1981). Power in Organization, Boston: Pitman.
Porter, M.E., (1990). The Competitive Advantage of Nations, Simon & Schuster
Prussia, G. E. and A. J. Kinicki, (1996). A Motivational Investigation of Group
Effectiveness Using Socialcognitive Theory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81: pp. 187-198.
Rousseau, D. M., Sitkin, S. B., Burt, R. S., and Camerer, C.(1998). “Not so Different
after all: A Cross-discipline View of Trust,” The Academy of Management Review, Vol.23, No.3, pp.393-404.
Schindler, P. L., and Thomas, C. C.(1993). “The Structure of Interpersonal Trust in
the Workplace,” Psychological Reports, October, pp.563-573.
Schumpeter, J. A. (1950). Capitalism, socialism, and democracy (3rd ed.). New York:
Harper.
Shapiro, S. P. (1987). The social control of impersonal trust. American Journal of
Sociology, 93 (3): pp. 623-658.
Simons, T. L, & Peterson, R. 5. (2000). Task conflict and relationship conflict in top
man agreement teams: The pivotal role of intragroup trust. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 85: pp.102-111.
Sitkin, S. B., & Roth, N. L. (1993). Explaining the limited effectiveness of legalistic
“remedies” for trust/distrust. Organization Science, 4, 367-392.
Smith, K. G., Grimm, C. M., & Gannon, M. J. (1992). Dynamics of competitive
strategy. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Smith, K. G., & Grimm, C. M..(1991). A communication-information model of
competitive response timing. Journal of Management, 17(1): pp.5-23.
Smith KG, Ferrier WJ, Ndofor H. (2001). Competitive Dynamics Research: Critique
and Future Directions. In The Blackwell Handbook of Strategic Management,
Hitt MA, Freeman RE, Harrison JS (eds). Blackwell Publishing: Oxford; pp. 314–361.
Talke, K., Salomo, S., & Rost, K. (2010). How top management team diversity affects
innovativeness and performance via the strategic choice to focus on innovation fields. Research Policy, 39: pp.907-918.
Tihanyi L., Ellstrand A. E., Daily C. M. & Dalton D. R. (2000). Composition of the
top management team and Firm International Diversification. Journal of Management, 26(6): pp.1157-1177
Tushman, Michael, B. Virany, and E. Romanelli. (1985). Executive Succession, Strategic Reorientation and Organization Evolution. Technology in Society 7 : pp.297–314.
Tushman, M. and E. Romanelli. 1985. Organizational Evolution: A Metamorphosis
Model of Convergence and Reorientation. In L. L. Cummings and B. M. Staw
(Eds.). Research in Organizational Behavior 7: pp. 171-222. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press
Tushman ML, Rosenkopf :. 1996. Executive succession, strategic reorientation, and
performance growth: A longitudinal study in the U. S. cement industry. Management Sci. 42(7): pp.939-953
Virany, B., M. L. Tushman, E. Romanelli. (1992). Executive succession and
organization outcomes in turbulent environments: An organizational learning approach. Organ.Sci. 3: pp. 72–91
Wagner, W. Gary, Jeffrey Pfeffer, and Charles A. O'Reilly III (1984). Organizational
demography and tumover in t(^>management groups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 29: pp74-92.
Wiersema, M. F., & Bantel, K. A. (1992). Top management team demography and
corporate strategic change. Academy of Management Journal, 35: pp 91-121.
Williams, J.R., (1992). How sustainable is your advantage? California Management
Review 34(3): 29-51.
Wood, R., Bandura, A. (1989). Impact of conceptions of ability on self-regulatory
mechanisms and complex decision making. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 56: pp. 407-415.
Wright, P. M. and Boswell, W. R. (2002). Desegregating HRM: a review and
synthesis of micro and macro human resource management research. Journal of Management, 28: pp. 247–76.
Young, G. (1993). Effects of hypophysectomy on coho salmon interrenal:
maintenance of steroidogenic pathway and restoration of in vitro responsiveness
to adrenocorticotropin after handling. General and Comparative Endocrinology
92: pp. 428-438.
Young, G., Smith, K. G., & Grimm, C. M. (1996). Austrian and industrial organization perspectives on firm-level competitive activity and performance. Organization Science, 7(3): pp. 243-254.
Zhu, W., May, D. R., and Avolio, B. J.(2004) The Impact of Ethical Leadership Behavior on Employee Outcomes: The Roles of Psychological Empowerment and Authenticity, Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, Vol.11, No.1: pp.16-26.