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研究生：	周志勳 Chou, Chih-Hsun
論文名稱：	在行動任意及無線感測網路中提升以位置為基礎的繞路協定之效能 Performance Enhancement for Geographic Routing Protocols in Mobile Ad Hoc and Wireless Sensor Networks
指導教授：	斯國峰 Ssu, Kuo-Feng
學位類別：	博士 Doctor
系所名稱：	電機資訊學院 - 電機工程學系 Department of Electrical Engineering
論文出版年：	2008
畢業學年度：	96
語文別：	英文
論文頁數：	117
中文關鍵詞：	行動任意網路、無線感測網路、繞路協定
外文關鍵詞：	Mobile Ad hoc Networks, Wireless Sensor Networks, Routing Protocols
相關次數：	點閱：98 下載：4
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由於以位置為基礎的繞路協定具有對網路系統產生較小負擔的特性，因此被廣泛的應用在行動任意及無線感測網路上。這篇論文針對此繞路協定中廣為大家熟知的“無效終點錯誤”，提出數個解決方案以提升網路效能及穩定性。此外，本篇論文發展了一套動態繞路資訊管理機制，能夠有效率的在變動環境中監控並即時更新繞路資訊；同時也提出一套可靠的位置資訊服務，以提升位置請求服務的成功率及系統的可靠度。

當無效終點錯誤發生時，繞路協定需要額外的演算法將資料封包傳送到正確目的地。之前研究所提出的繞路協定一般採用被動的方式，即是當無效終點錯誤發生時才進行處理，這麼一來造成部份封包的遺失或付出較大的傳輸成本。本篇論文則採用圖形理論預先偵測可能發生無效終點錯誤的位置，並將這些錯誤資訊通知其周遭的節點，使進行繞路傳輸時能避免將封包送到這一些可能產生無效終點錯誤的區域。另外，如何節省電力消耗是當前無線感測網路應用的重要課題，在省電的議題上，許多研究著重如何維持有效率的網路拓撲，同時使用最少有效節點達到一定程度的網路品質。然而，這些拓撲維持方案中並沒有考慮以位置為基礎的繞路協定特性，因而難以有效應用於此繞路協定。本篇論文也特別針對以位置為基礎的繞路協定的特性設計兼具省電與維持一定網路品質的拓撲維持演算法。

維持繞路資訊的正確性在以位置為基礎的繞路協定也是相當重要的一環。由於傳統的位置資訊交換頻率都是預先設定的，當環境變動較快速時，若交換頻率太慢，會造成位址資訊錯誤率提高，進而影響傳輸品質。但當環境變動較緩慢的時候，頻繁的交換位置資訊卻造成了成本浪費。本篇論文針對網路節點的移動性，設計了具動態調節訊息交換頻率的機制。當節點移動快速時，位置資訊能夠快速的更新以達成較佳的傳輸品質；而當節點移動較緩慢時，位置資訊不會頻繁交換，相對減少網路造成的負擔。

以位置為基礎的繞路協定中，在進行傳輸之前需要得到目標節點的所在位置，因此位置查詢服務扮演了相當重要的角色。先前文獻所提出的位置查詢服務演算法大多針對如何提供較快速的查詢方法及減低網路的負擔。然而，在行動任意網路中，節點的移動與不穩定性往往對於位置查詢服務的效能有顯著的影響。本篇論文發展具有容錯功能的位置查詢服務，當部份位置查詢伺服器失效時，存在網路中的其他節點可以接替其查詢服務功能。

Geographic routing has emerged as an attractive choice for both mobile ad hoc and wireless sensor networks. This thesis develops several enhancement schemes for handling the well-known dead-end problem in geographic routing protocols. In addition, an adaptive routing management and a reliable location service are presented for efficiently maintaining routing information and increasing the service availability, respectively.

The dead-end situation (also known as ``local maximum') is a fundamental problem when performing geographic forwarding in mobile ad hoc networks. When a packet encounters a dead-end, an additional overhead must be paid to route the packet around the dead-end. A scheme is implemented to decrease the risk of a data packet encountering a dead-end situation as it is forwarded to its destination. The mobile nodes periodically broadcast beacon messages to exchange neighboring node information in order to detect dead-ends along their intended transmission paths. During forwarding, the relaying nodes use this information to avoid delivering data packets to any relays known to be suffering a dead-end situation. The dead-end reduction (DR) scheme and other two baseline algorithms were evaluated using the ns2 simulator. The analytical and simulation results reveal that the DR scheme significantly reduced the number of dead-end occurrences. As a result, the packet delivery ratio and average path length were both improved compared to the conventional GPSR scheme.

Minimizing energy consumption is a fundamental requirement when deploying wireless sensor networks. Accordingly, various topology control protocols have been proposed which aim to conserve energy by turning off unnecessary sensors, while simultaneously preserving a constant level of routing fidelity. Although these protocols can generally be integrated with any routing scheme, few of them take specific account of the issues which arise when they are integrated with geographic routing mechanisms. Of these issues, the dead-end situation is also a particular concern. This thesis includes a distributed dead-end free topology maintenance protocol, designated as DFTM, for the construction of dead-end free networks using a minimum number of active nodes. The performance of DFTM is compared with that of the conventional GAF topology maintenance scheme in a series of numerical simulations. The evaluation results show that DFTM significantly reduces the number of active nodes required in the network, and thus prolongs the overall network lifetime. It is also demonstrated that DFTM successfully constructs a dead-end free topology in most of the simulated scenarios. Even when the locations of the sensors are not precisely known, DFTM still ensures that no more than a very few dead-end events occur during packet forwarding.

Traditional route maintenance requires mobile nodes periodically exchange beacon messages with their neighbors in geographic forwarding algorithms. The interval at which these nodes broadcast their beacon messages is typically fixed. However, determining an appropriate value for this interval is challenging. A longer interval reduces the number of beacons needed, but may result in significant location errors. Conversely, a shorter interval guarantees more accurate location information, but induces heavier control overheads. Additionally, since a fixed value is assigned to the lifetime of each routing entry, the forwarding algorithm cannot adapt well to different mobility environments. This thesis also presents a dynamic route maintenance algorithm (DRM) for beacon-based geographic routing. In the approach, the mobile nodes dynamically adjust their beacon intervals based on their speed of movement. Moreover, the routing information can be well managed using the mobility prediction. The simulation results show that DRM not only significantly decreased the routing overheads in a low mobility scenario but also guaranteed the high quality packet delivery in high mobility environments.

When performing geographic ad hoc routing, mobile nodes require the location information of the destination nodes for the data packets. However, due to node mobility or node failures, requests to the location servers for this information may fail. In this thesis, a distributed multi-server structure solution (MSLS) is built to provide a robust location service. When a location server fails, one or more backup servers will take over automatically. In a series of simulations, the performance of MSLS was benchmarked against that of the well-known GLS location service. The simulation results show that MSLS reduced the number of failed queries, thereby improving the service availability, and decreased the location query latency.

Chapter

Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1

1 Geographic Routing in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Topology Maintenance in Wireless Sensor Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 Route Maintenance in Geographic Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4 Thesis Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.1 Dead-end Reduction in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2 Dead-end Free Topology Maintenance in Wireless Sensor Networks . . 5
4.3 Dynamic Route Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.4 Reliable Location Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Related Work : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9

1 Mobile Ad Hoc Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Wireless Sensor Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3 Geographic Forwarding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4 Location Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5 Dead-end Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6 Topology Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Dead-end Reduction in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 16

1 System Environments and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 Dead-end Reduction Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1 Dead-end Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Dead-end Information Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Dead-end Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 Control Overhead Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1 Dead-end Occurrences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Path Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Dead-end Free Topology Maintenance in Wireless Sensor Networks : : : : : : 33

1 System Environments and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2 Proposed Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.1 Dead-end Free Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2 Dead-end Free Topology Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3 Dead-end Free Topology Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3 Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4 Analysis for the Number of Active Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Dynamic Route Maintenance : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 48

1 System Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2 Beacon Interval Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3 Beacon Interval Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4 Route Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5 Position Error Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Reliable Location Service : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 58

1 System Model and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2 Multi-server Structure Location Service (MSLS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.1 Location Hash Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.2 Updating Location Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.3 Querying Location Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.4 Location Information Handoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.5 Empty Square Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Performance Evaluation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 72

1 Dead-end Reduction in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.1 Simulation Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.2 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2 Dead-end Free Topology Maintenance in Wireless Sensor Networks . . . . . . 82
2.1 Simulation Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.2 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3 Dynamic Route Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.1 Simulation Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.2 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4 Reliable Location Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.1 Simulation Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.2 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Conclusion and Future Work : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 107

1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

References : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 111

Vita : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 117
                                    

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