本研究提出一項結合數值模擬與實驗驗證的整合式研究，針對 BOROFLOAT® 33 玻璃與 AA1050 鋁之直接雷射焊接進行探討，旨在解決兩種材料在熱性質與機械性質上高度不匹配所帶來的長期挑戰。本研究建立一套三維 COMSOL Multiphysics 模型，以模擬擺動式奈秒雷射作用下之暫態熱傳行為與熱誘發應力分佈，模型中針對玻璃採用體積熱源，而對鋁材則採用表面熱源進行描述。為預測脆性玻璃中裂紋的起始與擴展行為，本研究進一步導入全耦合熱－機相場模型，使損傷能在熱梯度與殘留應力的驅動下連續演化。模擬結果顯示，高雷射功率與低掃描速度會顯著提高裂紋驅動能量並促進裂紋形成，而中等能量輸入則可有效侷限應力集中。實驗雷射焊接結果驗證了上述模擬預測，在熔池形貌、孔洞生成以及裂紋行為等方面，模擬所得之損傷場與實際觀察結果呈現高度一致。為進一步最佳化製程參數，本研究以相場模型輸出的損傷結果作為訓練資料，建立人工神經網路模型並構建高解析度製程參數圖譜。結果顯示，在雷射功率約 30–50 W 且掃描速度為 3–5 mm/s 的條件下，可獲得低損傷接合區域，形成無裂紋焊道，其最大剪切強度可達 8.5 MPa，表現優於多數已報導之玻璃－金屬雷射焊接研究。本研究所建立之數值－實驗整合分析架構，提供一套無需中介層的玻璃－金屬雷射焊接參數最佳化策略，並可作為未來光電、微流體與先進封裝應用之穩健基礎。

This study presents an integrated numerical–experimental investigation of direct laser welding between BOROFLOAT® 33 glass and AA1050 aluminum, aiming to resolve the long-standing challenges associated with their large mismatch in thermal and mechanical properties. A three-dimensional COMSOL Multiphysics model was developed to simulate transient heat transfer and thermally induced stress under a wobbling nanosecond laser, incorporating a volumetric heat source for glass and surface heat sources for aluminum. To predict crack initiation and propagation in the brittle glass, a fully coupled thermo-mechanical phase-field model was implemented, enabling the continuous evolution of damage driven by thermal gradients and residual stresses. Simulation results reveal that high laser power and low scanning speed significantly elevate damage-driving energy and promote cracking, whereas moderate energy input confines stress localization. Experimental welding trials validated these predictions, showing close correspondence between simulated damage fields and observed molten morphology, pore formation, and crack behavior. To further optimize process parameters, artificial neural networks (ANNs) were trained on phase-field damage outputs to construct a high-resolution processing map. The resulting map identifies an optimal low-damage window at ~30–50 W with a scanning speed of 3–5 mm/s, yielding crack-free seams and a maximum shear strength of 8.5 MPa—surpassing many reported glass-metal welding benchmarks. This combined computational–experimental framework provides a quantitative strategy for optimizing glass–metal laser welding without the use of interlayers, offering a robust foundation for future optoelectronic, microfluidic, and packaging applications.

[1] C. Chen, L. Li, M. Zhang, M. Xu, and W. Zhang, "Study on Laser Transmission Welding Technology of TC4 Titanium Alloy and High-Borosilicate Glass," Materials, vol. 17, no. 17, p. 4371, 2024.
[2] N. Cocheteau et al., "Influence of roughness on mechanical strength of direct bonded silica and Zerodur® glasses," International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, vol. 68, pp. 87-94, 2016.
[3] Y. Tian, H. Li, W. Liu, and Y. Shao, "Elaboration of a novel glass-to-metal seal for tubular solar receiver," Optoelectronics and Advanced Materials-Rapid Communications, vol. 9, no. March-April 2015, pp. 388-393, 2015.
[4] F. Smeacetto et al., "Glass‐to‐metal seals for solid oxide cells at the Politecnico di Torino, an overview," International Journal of Applied Ceramic Technology, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 1017-1028, 2022.
[5] R. M. Carter, J. Chen, J. D. Shephard, R. R. Thomson, and D. P. Hand, "Picosecond laser welding of similar and dissimilar materials," Applied optics, vol. 53, no. 19, pp. 4233-4238, 2014.
[6] C. Tan et al., "Realization of joints of aluminosilicate glass and 6061 aluminum alloy via picosecond laser welding without optical contact," Materials, vol. 17, no. 17, p. 4299, 2024.
[7] W. Watanabe, S. Onda, T. Tamaki, K. Itoh, and J. Nishii, "Space-selective laser joining of dissimilar transparent materials using femtosecond laser pulses," Applied physics letters, vol. 89, no. 2, 2006.
[8] F. Sari, W.-M. Hoffmann, E. Haberstroh, and R. Poprawe, "Applications of laser transmission processes for the joining of plastics, silicon and glass micro parts," Microsystem technologies, vol. 14, pp. 1879-1886, 2008.
[9] R. E. Lafon, S. Li, F. Micalizzi, and S. Lebair, "Ultrafast laser bonding of glasses and crystals to metals for epoxy-free optical instruments," in Components and packaging for laser systems VI, 2020, vol. 11261: SPIE, p. 1126103.
[10] Z. Min, C. Yufei, C. Changjun, and Q. Zhaoling, "A new sealing technology for ultra-thin glass to aluminum alloy by laser transmission welding method," The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 115, no. 7, pp. 2017-2035,2021.
[11] K.-M. Hong and Y. C. Shin, "Prospects of laser welding technology in the automotive industry: A review," Journal of Materials Processing Technology, vol. 245, pp. 46-69, 2017.
[12] P. Wen, D. Yelkenci, J. Chen, B. Chang, D. Du, and J. Shan, "Numerical analysis of the effect of welding positions on formation quality during laser welding of TC4 titanium alloy parts in aerospace industry," Journal of Laser Applications, vol. 31, no. 2, 2019.
[13] C. Chen, L. Li, M. Zhang, and W. Zhang, "Effects of Different Surface Treatment Methods on Laser Welding of Aluminum Alloy and Glass," Coatings, vol. 14, no. 10, p. 1318, 2024.
[14] C. Chen, J. Tang, M. Zhang, and W. Zhang, "The Impact of Welding Parameters on the Welding Strength of High Borosilicate Glass and Aluminum Alloy," Metals, vol. 14, no. 9, p. 1001, 2024.
[15] Q. Li, G. Matthäus, D. Sohr, and S. Nolte, "Direct Glass-to-Metal Welding by Femtosecond Laser Pulse Bursts: I, Conditions for Successful Welding with a Gap," Nanomaterials, vol. 15, no. 15, p. 1202, 2025.
[16] C. Li et al., "High shear strength welding of soda lime glass to stainless steel using an infrared nanosecond fiber laser assisted by surface tension," Optics and Lasers in Engineering, vol. 161, p. 107329, 2023.
[17] H. Chen, Z. Li, M. Han, X. Yang, and S. Bai, "Improved Femtosecond Laser Welding of Nonoptical Contact Glass by Pressure and a Water Intermediate Layer," ACS omega, vol. 9, no. 37, pp. 38878-38886, 2024.
[18] T. Gerasimov and L. De Lorenzis, "A line search assisted monolithic approach for phase-field computing of brittle fracture," Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, vol. 312, pp. 276-303, 2016.
[19] H. Ruan, X.-L. Peng, Y. Yang, D. Gross, and B.-X. Xu, "Phase-field ductile fracture simulations of thermal cracking in additive manufacturing," Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, vol. 191, p. 105756, 2024.
[20] P. Li et al., "A review on phase field models for fracture and fatigue," Engineering Fracture Mechanics, vol. 289, p. 109419, 2023.
[21] M. Mhedhbi, M. Khlif, and C. Bradai, "Investigations of microstructural and mechanical properties evolution of AA1050 alloy sheets deformed by coldrolling process and heat treatment annealing," J. Mater. Environ. Sci, vol. 8, no. 23, p. 2967, 2017.
[22] Y. Y. Avcu et al., "Modification of surface and subsurface properties of AA1050 alloy by shot peening," Materials, vol. 14, no. 21, p. 6575, 2021.
[23] N. S. Edwards et al., "Fabrication and characterization of Schott Borofloat® 33 microstrip electrodes," Radiation Physics and Chemistry, vol. 155, pp. 146-149, 2019.
[24] A. A. Wereszczak and C. E. Anderson Jr, "Borofloat and starphire float glasses: A comparison," International Journal of Applied Glass Science, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 334-344, 2014.
[25] Y. Cai, L. Yang, H. Zhang, and Y. Wang, "Laser cutting silicon-glass double layer wafer with laser induced thermal-crack propagation," Optics and Lasers in Engineering, vol. 82, pp. 173-185, 2016.
[26] A.-J. N. Khalifa, "Natural convective heat transfer coefficient–a review: I. Isolated vertical and horizontal surfaces," Energy conversion and management, vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 491-504, 2001.
[27] V. Dimatteo, A. Ascari, and A. Fortunato, "Continuous laser welding with spatial beam oscillation of dissimilar thin sheet materials (Al-Cu and Cu-Al): Process optimization and characterization," Journal of Manufacturing Processes, vol. 44, pp. 158-165, 2019.
[28] H. Ramiarison, N. Barka, C. Pilcher, E. Stiles, G. Larrimore, and S. Amira, "Weldability improvement by wobbling technique in high power density laser welding of two aluminum alloys: Al-5052 and Al-6061," Journal of Laser Applications, vol. 33, no. 3, 2021.
[29] N. T. Tien, Y.-L. Lo, M. M. Raza, C.-Y. Chen, and C.-P. Chiu, "Optimization of processing parameters for pulsed laser welding of dissimilar metal interconnects," Optics & Laser Technology, vol. 159, p. 109022, 2023.
[30] C. Miehe, M. Hofacker, and F. Welschinger, "A phase field model for rateindependent crack propagation: Robust algorithmic implementation based on operator splits," Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, vol. 199, no. 45-48, pp. 2765-2778, 2010.
[31] M. J. Borden, C. V. Verhoosel, M. A. Scott, T. J. Hughes, and C. M. Landis, "A phase-field description of dynamic brittle fracture," Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, vol. 217, pp. 77-95, 2012.
[32] Z. Wang, S. Y. Zhang, and Q. Shen, "Coupled thermo-mechanical phase-field modeling to simulate the crack evolution of defective ceramic materials under flame thermal shock," Applied Sciences, vol. 13, no. 23, p. 12633, 2023.
[33] M. M. Raza, Y.-L. Lo, H.-B. Lee, and C. Yu-Tsung, "Computational modeling of laser welding for aluminum–copper joints using a circular strategy," Journal of Materials Research and Technology, vol. 25, pp. 3350-3364, 2023.
[34] H.-C. Tran and Y.-L. Lo, "Systematic approach for determining optimal processing parameters to produce parts with high density in selective laser melting process," The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 105, no. 10, pp. 4443-4460, 2019.
[35] Y.-S. Chan, "Optimization for Laser Transmission Welding between Glass and Silicon lap joint," Master, Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, 2025.
[36] L. Li et al., "The influence of anodization on laser transmission welding between high borosilicate glass and TC4 titanium alloy," Optics & Laser Technology, vol. 181, p. 111590, 2025.
[37] C.-h. Ji, Y.-j. Huang, X. Chen, J.-y. Jiang, Z.-j. Guo, and Y. Long, "Direct microwelding of dissimilar glass and Kovar alloy without optical contact using femtosecond laser pulses," Journal of Central South University, vol. 29, no. 10, pp. 3422-3435, 2022.
[38] L. Zhang, Z. Zhu, J. Wen, H. Wu, L. Li, and X. Ma, "The characteristics and dynamics of fused silica-aluminum alloy welding during mJ-level femtosecond laser," Materials & Design, vol. 239, p. 112790, 2024.