背景與目的: 發展性協調障礙是一種動作協調有問題且異質性高的疾病，其動作表現較一般同儕差，然而此問題無法用一般疾病或智能缺失解釋。此類型疾病的兒童跟同儕相比，具較高風險有過重或肥胖的問題，而過重或肥胖易對健康造成負面影響，因此此問題值得探討。過去研究指出過重或肥胖的兒童，其身體活動量也較一般兒童低，而身體活動量又與體適能有正相關。體適能是兒童及青少年重要的健康指標，其又可分為健康相關體適能與動作適能。過去少數的研究結果顯示，學齡前發展性協調障礙的兒童除了動作適能較差外，也可能有較差的健康體適能及較低的身體活動量，然而這部分的相關研究仍然不足，並且過重或肥胖在發展性協調障礙兒童的體適能表現及身體活動量上，扮演什麼樣的角色目前還不清楚。因此本研究主要的目的是去探討，過重或肥胖學齡前發展性協調障礙兒童之健康體適能、動作適能與身體活動，以釐清過重或肥胖對學齡前發展性協調障礙兒童的健康相關體適能、動作適能與身體活動之影響。

研究方法: 從台南的幼兒園進行招募與篩選受試者，分為四組：一般發展、一般發展但過重或肥胖、發展性協調障礙、以及過重或肥胖的發展性協調障礙，一組各有二十人。測量的參數包括健康體適能的身體組成、柔軟度、肌肉適能及心肺適能；動作技巧的平衡、速度與敏捷度，以及一週的身體活動量。使用單因子變異數分析去分析四組間的基本資料、健康體適能、動作適能、以及各等級身體活動量參數，另外使用卡方檢定分析性別、身體質量指數及體脂肪率分類，統計值小於0.05達統計差異。

結果: 在身體組成方面，過重或肥胖之發展性協調障礙兒童的身體質量指數及體脂肪率皆與其他三組有顯著差異；心肺適能方面，一般發展兒童的表現明顯較發展性協調障礙與過重或肥胖發展性協調障礙之兒童佳；坐姿體前彎及上肢握力的部分，四組則無任何差異；而其他肌肉適能項目之綜合分數顯示，過重或肥胖之發展性協調障礙兒童的表現明顯較其他三組差。平衡方面，發展性協調障礙與過重或肥胖發展性協調障礙之兒童的表現並無統計上差異，然而有過重或肥胖的組別仍有表現較差的趨勢；速度與敏捷度的部分，一般兒童與過重或肥胖之一般兒童的表現明顯較另外兩組好；而身體活動量方面，無論哪種強度之活動量，四組皆無顯著差異。

結論: 過重或肥胖之發展性協調障礙兒童，無論在健康體適能或動作適能的表現趨勢皆是最差的，包含身體質量指數、體脂肪率、心肺適能、肌肉適能與平衡。本研究結果顯示，過重或肥胖的問題對於學齡前發展性協調障礙兒童而言，扮演了惡化其健康相關問題的角色，特別是肌肉耐力的部分，因此學齡前發展性協調障礙兒童的肥胖問題確實非常需要被關注。

Background and purpose: Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) are characterized with motor skill difficulty which cannot be explained by any medical or intellectual reasons. Compared with their peers, children with DCD are at a higher risk of being overweight or obesity, and this problem may cause negative health outcome. Therefore, it merits attention to study the issue of overweight and obesity in DCD children. Previous studies showed that children with overweight or obesity had less physical activity than children with normal weight, and physical activity was positively associated with physical fitness. Physical fitness is considered to be a powerful health marker, and it can be subdivided into two parts: health-related fitness and motor fitness. Few researchers believed that children with DCD not only had poorer physical fitness, but also had lesser physical activity, but the data were still scarce. Also, the role of obesity in preschool children with DCD is still unsure. Therefore, the purpose of my study is to examine health-related fitness, motor fitness, and physical activity in preschool children with DCD and TD children. Children with DCD and TD children will be further divided between with normal weight and with overweight or obesity.

Methods: Participants were recruited from four kindergartens in Tainan, and they were divided into four groups: TD children, TD children with overweight or obesity (OTD), children with DCD, and children with DCD and overweight or obesity (ODCD). The outcome measures of health-related fitness were body composition, cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular fitness, and flexibility. The parameters of motor fitness were included balance, speed and agility. Participants were also measured their one-week physical activity. One-way ANOVA and post hoc analysis with Tukey HSD test were used to analyzed basic data, physical fitness, motor fitness, and physical activity between four groups. Chi-square test were used to analyzed gender, BMI category, and body fat category. The statistical significance level was set at the p < 0.05.

Results: There were significant differences between ODCD group and other three groups in body composition. In cardiorespiratory fitness, TD children performed significantly better than DCD and ODCD group. In flexibility and handgrip test, there were no differences between four groups, and in the gender and combined scale score of strength subtest in BOT-2 showed that ODCD group performed significantly worse than other three groups. In balance test, there were no significantly statistical differences but a deteriorating trend between children with DCD and children with ODCD. In speed and agility test, TD and OTD children performed significantly better than DCD and ODCD group. There were no differences between four groups no matter in which level of physical activity.

Conclusion: ODCD children had the worst performance trend of health-related fitness and motor fitness, followed by DCD children, OTD children, and TD children in preschool age, including BMI, body fat, cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular fitness, and balance. These findings showed that overweight and obesity seemed to play an important role of worsening health-related problems in DCD preschoolers, especially muscle endurance. Therefore, the problem of overweight and obesity really needs to be paid more attention to in preschool children with DCD.

ActiGraph. (2018). What are Counts. https ://actigraphcorp.force.com/ support/s/article/
What-are-counts
Adamo, K. B., Colley, R. C., Hadjiyannakis, S., & Goldfield, G. S. (2015). Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior in Obese Youth. The Journal of Pediatrics, 166(5), 1270–1275.e2
American College of Sports Medicine, A. (2017). Health-related Physical Fitness Assessment Manual (5th ed.). Philadelphia, United States.
American Psychiatric Association, A. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental. Disorders (DSM-5) (5th ed.).
Baker, J. L., Olsen, L. W., & Sørensen, T. I. A. (2007). Childhood Body-Mass Index and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Adulthood. New England Journal of Medicine, 357(23), 2329–2337.
Bayer, O., Bolte, G., Morlock, G., Rückinger, S., & Von-Kries, R. (2008). A Simple Assessment of Physical Activity is Associated with Obesity and Motor Fitness in Pre-school Children. Public Health Nutrition, 12(08), 1242.
Bjerregaard, L. F., Jensen B. W., Ängquist, L., Osler, M., Sorensen, T., Baker, J. L. (2018). Change in Overweight from Childhood to Early Adulthood and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes. New England Journal of Medicine, 378(26), 2537–2538.
Boutcher, S. H. (2011). High-intensity Intermittent Exercise and Fat Loss. Journal of Obesity, 2011, 868305.
Bruininks, R. H., Bruininks, B. D. (2005). The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency: Examinars Manual (BOT-2; 2nd ed.).
Butte, N. F., Wong, W. W., Lee, J. S., Adolph, A. L., Puyau, M. R., & Zakeri, I. F. (2014). Prediction of Energy Expenditure and Physical Activity in Preschoolers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 46(6), 1216–1226.
Cadenas-Sanchez, C., Martinez-Tellez, B., Sanchez-Delgado, G., Mora-Gonzalez, J., Castro-Piñero, J., Löf, M., Ruiz, J. R., & Ortega, F. B. (2016). Assessing Physical Fitness in Preschool Children: Feasibility, Reliability and Practical Recommendations for the PREFIT Battery. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 19(11), 910–915.
Cairney, J., Hay, J., Veldhuizen, S., Faught, B. E. (2010). Trajectories of Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Children with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Longitudinal Analysis. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 45(15), 1196–1201.
Cairney, J., Hay, J., Veldhuizen, S., Missiuna, C., Mahlberg, N., & Faught, B. E. (2010). Trajectories of Relative Weight and Waist Circumference among Children with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 182(11), 1167–1172.
Cantell, M., Crawford, S. G., & Tish Doyle-Baker, P. K. (2008). Physical Fitness and Health Indices in Children, Adolescents and Adults with High or Low Motor Competence. Human Movement Science, 27(2), 344–362.
Cermak, S. A., Katz, N., Weintraub, N., Steinhart, S., Raz-Silbiger, S., Munoz, M., & Lifshitz, N. (2015). Participation in Physical Activity, Fitness, and Risk for Obesity in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Cross-cultural Study. Occupational Therapy International, 22(4), 163–173.
Chang, T. W., Cherng, R. J. (2019). Physical Fitness in School-age Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder. (unpublished)
Collings, P. J., Brage, S., Ridgway, C. L., Harvey, N. C., Godfrey, K. M., Inskip, H. M., Cooper, C., Wareham, N. J., Ekelund, U. (2013). Physical Activity Intensity, Sedentary Time, and Body Composition in Preschoolers. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 97(5), 1020–1028.
Deforche, B. I., Hills, A. P., Worringham, C. J., Davies, P. S. W., Murphy, A. J., Bouckaert, J. J., & De Bourdeaudhuij, I. M. (2009). Balance and Postural Skills in Normal-weight and Overweight Prepubertal Boys. International Journal of Pediatric Obesity, 4(3), 175–182.
Delgado-Lobete, L., Santos-Del-Riego, S., Pértega-Díaz, S., & Montes-Montes, R. (2019). Prevalence of Suspected Developmental Coordination Disorder and Associated Factors in Spanish Classrooms. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 86, 31–40.
De Toia, D., Klein, D., Weber, S., Wessely, N., Koch, B., Tokarski, W., Dordel, S., Struder, H., Graf, C. (2009). Relationship Between Anthropometry and Motor Abilities at Pre-school Age. Obesity Facts, 2(4), 221–225.
Dolinsky, D. H., Brouwer, R. J., Evenson, K. R., Siega-Riz, A. M., & Østbye, T. (2011). Correlates of Sedentary Time and Physical Activity Among Preschool-aged Children. Preventing Chronic Disease, 8(6), A131.
Dunn, L. M., Dunn, L. M. (1981) Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test – Revised Manual. Circle Pines. MN: American Guidance Service.
Elmahgoub, S. S., Van de Velde, A., Peersman, W., Cambier, D., Calders, P. (2011). Reproducibility, Validity and Predictors of Six-minute Walk Test in Overweight and Obese Adolescents with Intellectual Disability. Disability and Rehabilitation, 34(10), 846–851.
Evensen, E., Wilsgaard, T., Furberg, A.-S., & Skeie, G. (2016). Tracking of Overweight and Obesity from Early Childhood to Adolescence in a Population-based Cohort – The Tromsø Study, Fit Futures. BMC Pediatrics, 16(1).
Farhat, F., Hsairi, I., Baiti, H., Cairney, J., Mchirgui, R., Masmoudi, K., Padulo, J., Triki, C., & Moalla, W. (2015). Assessment of Physical Fitness and Exercise Tolerance in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 45-46, 210–219.
Farhat, F., Masmoudi, K., Cairney, J., Hsairi, I., Triki, C., & Moalla, W. (2014). Assessment of Cardiorespiratory and Neuromotor Fitness in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(12), 3554–3561.
Ferguson, G. D., Aertssen, W. F., Rameckers, E. A., Jelsma, J., Smits-Engelsman, B. C. (2014). Physical Fitness in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: Measurement Matters. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(5), 1087–1097.
Franks, P. W., Hanson, R. L., Knowler, W. C., Sievers, M. L., Bennett, P. H., Looker, H. C. (2010). Childhood Obesity, Other Cardiovascular Risk Factors, and Premature Death. The New England Journal of Medicine. 362 (6), 485–93.
Gamero-del Castillo, D., Lorenzo Calvo, J., Navandar, A., & López Díaz De Durana, A. (2020). Differences in the Bodyweight, Hydration Levels, Lean Mass, and Fat Mass in Spanish Junior Elite Judokas. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(8), 2853.
Geiger, R., Strasak, A., Treml, B., Gasser, K., Kleinsasser, A., Fischer, V., Geiger, H., Loeckinger, A., & Stein, J. I. (2007). Six-minute Walk Test in Children and Adolescents. The Journal of Pediatrics, 150(4), 395–399.
Goemans, N., Klingels, K., Van Den Hauwe, M., Van Orshoven, A., Vanpraet, S., Feys, H., Buyse, G. (2013). Test-retest Reliability and Developmental Evolution of the 6-min Walk Test in Caucasian Boys Aged 5-12 Years. Neuromuscular Disorder: NMD, 23(1), 19–24.
Haga, M. (2008). The Relationship Between Physical Fitness and Motor Competence in Children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 34(3), 329–334.
Hales, C. M., Carroll, M. D., Fryar, C. D., Ogden, C. L. (2017). Prevalence of Obesity Among Adults and Youth: United States, 2015-2016. NCHS data brief, (288), 1–8.
Hansen, A. W., Beyer, N., Flensborg-Madsen, T., Grønbæk, M., Helge, J. W. (2013). Muscle Strength and Physical Activity are Associated with Self-rated Health in an Adult Danish Population. Preventive Medicine, 57(6), 792–798.
Henderson, S. E., Sugden, D. A., Barnett, A. L. (2007). Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2. San Antonio, TX, USA: Psychological Corporation.
Hendrix, C. G., Prins, M. R., Dekkers, H. (2014). Developmental Coordination Disorder and Overweight and Obesity in Children: A Systematic Review. Obesity Reviews: An Official Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 15(5), 408–423.
Henriksson P, Leppänen MH, Henriksson H, Delisle Nyström C, Cadenas-Sanchez C, Ek A, Ruiz JR, Ortega FB, Löf M. (2019). Physical Fitness in Relation to Later Body Composition in Pre-school Children. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 22(5), 574-579.
Hills, A. P., Andersen, L. B., Byrne, N. M. (2011). Physical Activity and Obesity in Children. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 45(11), 866–870.
Hunter, G. R., Weinsier, R. L., Bamman, M. M., Larson, D. E. (1998). A Role for High Intensity Exercise on Energy Balance and Weight Control. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders: Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 22(6), 489–493.
Janz, K. F., Levy, S. M., Burns, T. L., Torner, J. C., Willing, M. C., Warren, J. J. (2002). Fatness, Physical Activity, and Television Viewing in Children During the Adiposity Rebound Period: The Iowa Bone Development Study. Preventive Medicine, 35(6), 563–571.
Jebb, S., McCarthy, D., Fry, T. Prentice, A. M. (2004). New Body Fat Reference Curves for Children. Obesity Reviews (NAASO Suppl). 12: A156-157
Jelsma, D., Ferguson, G. D., Smits-Engelsman, B. C. M., Geuze, R. H. (2015). Short-term Motor Learning of Dynamic Balance Control in Children with Probable Developmental Coordination Disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 38, 213–222.
King-Dowling, S., Kwan, M., Rodriguez, C., Missiuna, C., Timmons, B. W., Cairney, J. (2019). Physical Activity in Young Children at Risk for Developmental Coordination Disorder. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 61(11), 1302–1308.
King-Dowling, S., Rodriguez, C., Missiuna, C., Timmons, B. W., Cairney, J. (2018). Health-related Fitness in Preschool Children with and without Motor Delays. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 50(7), 1442–1448.
Kirby, A., Sugden, D. A. (2010). Developmental Coordination Disorder. British Journal of Hospital Medicine, 71(10), 571–575.
Kryst, Ł., Woronkowicz, A., Jankowicz-Szymańska, A., Pociecha, M., Kowal, M., Sobiecki, J., Brudecki, J., Żarów, R. (2016). Physical Fitness of Overweight and Underweight Preschool Children from Southern Poland. Anthropologischer Anzeiger; Bericht Uber Die Biologisch-anthropologische Literatur, 73(2), 10.1127 / Anthranz /2016/0561.
Laguna, M., Ruiz, J. R., Gallardo, C., García-Pastor, T., Lara, M. T., Aznar, S. (2013). Obesity and Physical Activity Patterns in Children and Adolescents. Journal of Pediatrics and Child Health, 49(11), 942–949.
Lammers, A. E., Hislop, A. A., Flynn, Y., Haworth, S. G. (2008). The 6-minute Walk Test: Normal Values for Children of 4-11 Years of Age. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 93(6), 464–468.
Latorre Román, P. Á., Moreno del Castillo, R., Lucena Zurita, M., Salas Sánchez, J., García-Pinillos, F., Mora López, D. (2016). Physical Fitness in Preschool Children: Association with Sex, Age and Weight Status. Child: Care, Health and Development, 43(2), 267–273.
Latorre Román, P. Á., López, D. M., Aguayo, B. B., Fuentes, A. R., García-Pinillos, F., Redondo, M. M. (2017). Handgrip Strength is Associated with Anthropometrics Variables and Sex in Preschool Children: A Cross Sectional Study Providing Reference Values. Physical Therapy in Sport: Official Journal of the Association of Chartered Physiotherapists in Sports Medicine, 26, 1–6.
Leong, D. P., Teo, K. K., Rangarajan, S., Lopez-Jaramillo, P., Avezum, A., J, Orlandini, A., Seron, P., Ahmed, S. H., Rosengren, A., Kelishadi, R., Rahman, O., Swaminathan, S., Iqbal, R., Gupta, R., Lear, S. A., Oguz, A., Yusoff, K., Zatonska, K., Chifamba, J., Igumbor, E., … Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology (PURE) Study Investigators (2015). Prognostic Value of Grip Strength: Findings from the Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology (PURE) Study. Lancet (London, England), 386(9990), 266–273.
Leppänen, M. H., Henriksson, P., Delisle Nyström, C., Henriksson, H., Ortega, F. B., Pomeroy, J., Ruiz, J. R., Cadenas-Sanchez, C., & Löf, M. (2017). Longitudinal Physical Activity, Body Composition, and Physical Fitness in Preschoolers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 49(10), 2078–2085.
Leppänen, M. H., Nyström, C. D., Henriksson, P., Pomeroy, J., Ruiz, J. R., Ortega, F. B., Cadenas-Sánchez, C., Löf, M. (2016). Physical Activity Intensity, Sedentary Behavior, Body Composition and Physical Fitness in 4-year-old Children: Results from the Ministop Trial. International Journal of Obesity (2005), 40(7), 1126–1133.
Li, Y. C., Wu, S. K., Cairney, J., & Hsieh, C. Y. (2011). Motor Coordination and Health-related Physical Fitness of Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Three-year Follow-up Study. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32(6), 2993–3002.
Lifshitz, N., Raz-Silbiger, S., Weintraub, N., Steinhart, S., Cermak, S. A., Katz, N. (2014). Physical Fitness and Overweight in Israeli Children with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder: Gender differences. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(11), 2773–2780.
Lin, K. H., & Wu, S. K. (2002). Seven to Eight Year-old Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder in Taiwan. Formosan Journal of Physical Therapy, 27(5), 238-248.
Martinez-Tellez, B., Sanchez-Delgado, G., Cadenas-Sanchez, C., Mora-Gonzalez, J., Martín-Matillas, M., Löf, M., Ruiz, J. R. (2015). Health-related Physical Fitness is Associated with Total and Central Body Fat in Preschool Children Aged 3 to 5 Years. Pediatric Obesity, 11(6), 468–474.
Matarma, T., Lagström, H., Hurme, S., Tammelin, T. H., Kulmala, J., Barnett, L. M., Koski, P. (2018). Motor Skills in Association with Physical Activity, Sedentary Time, Body Fat, and Day Care Attendance in 5-6-year-old Children-The STEPS Study. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 28(12), 2668–2676.
Mylius, C. F., Paap, D., Takken, T. (2016). Reference Value for the 6-minute Walk Test in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Expert Review of Respiratory Medicine, 10(12), 1335–1352.
Nader, P. R., O'Brien, M., Houts, R., Bradley, R., Belsky, J., Crosnoe, R., Friedman, S., Mei, Z., Susman, E. J., National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network. (2006) Identifying Risk for Obesity in Early Childhood. Pediatrics. 118(3), 594-601.
Nascimento, R. O., Ferreira, L. F., Goulardins, J. B., Freudenheim, A. M., Marques, J. C. B., Casella, E. B., Oliveira, J. A. (2013). Health-related Physical Fitness Children with Severe and Moderate Developmental Coordination Disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(11), 4222–4231.
National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE). http://www.co.shasta.ca.
us/docs/libraries/hhsa-docs/communitypartners/NASPE
Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Kit, B. K., Flegal, K. M. (2014). Prevalence of Childhood and Adult Obesity in the United States, 2011-2012. Journal of the American Medical Association, 311(8), 806.
Ortega, F. B., Ruiz, J. R., Castillo, M. J., Sjöström, M. (2007). Physical Fitness in Childhood and Adolescence: A Powerful Marker of Health. International Journal of Obesity, 32(1), 1–11.
Oxford University Press. (2007). The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine (3rd edition).
Reilly, J., Jackson, D., Montgomery, C., Kelly, L., Slater, C., Grant, S., Paton, J. (2004). Total Energy Expenditure and Physical Activity in Young Scottish Children: Mixed Longitudinal Study. The Lancet, 363(9404), 211–212.
Riddell, M. C. (2008). The Endocrine Response and Substrate Utilization During Exercise in Children and Adolescents. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md.: 1985), 105(2), 725–733.
Rivard, L., Missiuna, C., McCauley, D., Cairney, J. (2014). Descriptive and Factor Analysis of the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ'07) in a Population-based Sample of Children with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder. Child: Care, Health and Development, 40(1), 42–49.
Schott, N., Alof, V., Hultsch, D., Meermann, D. (2007). Physical Fitness in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 78(5), 438–450.
Silva-Santos, S., Santos, A., Vale, S., Mota, J. (2016). Motor Fitness and Preschooler Children Obesity Status. Journal of Sports Sciences, 35(17), 1704–1708.
Smith, J. J., Eather, N., Morgan, P. J., Plotnikoff, R. C., Faigenbaum, A. D., Lubans, D. R. (2014). The Health Benefits of Muscular Fitness for Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Medicine, 44(9), 1209–1223.
Straker, L., Howie, E., Smith, A., Jensen, L., Piek, J., Campbell, A. (2015). A Crossover Randomised and Controlled Trial of the Impact of Active Video Games on Motor Coordination and Perceptions of Physical Ability in Children at Risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder. Human Movement Science, 42, 146–160.
Tirosh, A., Shai, I., Afek, A., Dubnov-Raz, G., Ayalon, N., Gordon, B. (2011). Adolescent BMI Trajectory and Risk of Diabetes Versus Coronary Disease. Survey of Anesthesiology, 55(6), 296–297.
Trost, S. G., Sirard, J. R., Dowda, M., Pfeiffer, K. A., Pate, R. R. (2003). Physical Activity in Overweight and Nonoverweight Preschool Children. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders : Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 27(7), 834–839.
Tsiotra, G. D., Nevill, A. M., Lane, A. M., Koutedakis, Y. (2009). Physical Fitness and Developmental Coordination Disorder in Greek Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 21(2), 186–195.
Tuan, S. H., Li, C. H., Sun, S. F., Li, M. H., Liou, I. H., Weng, T. P., Lin, K. L. (2019). Comparison of Cardiorespiratory Fitness between Preschool Children with Normal and Excess Body Adipose ~ An Observational Study. PLOS ONE, 14(10), e0223907.
University of Granada, Spain. PREFIT Battery: Assessing FITness in PREschoolers.
Vale, S. M., Santos, R. M., da Cruz Soares-Miranda, L. M., Moreira, C. M., Ruiz, J. R., Mota, J. A. (2010). Objectively Measured Physical Activity and Body Mass Index in Preschool Children. International Journal of Pediatrics, 2010, 479439.
Vasold, K. L., Parks, A. C., Phelan, D., Pontifex, M. B., Pivarnik, J. M. (2019). Reliability and Validity of Commercially Available Low-Cost Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 29(4), 406–410.
Verbecque, E., Johnson, C., Rameckers, E., Thijs, A., van der Veer, I., Meyns, P., Smits-Engelsman, B., Klingels, K. (2021). Balance Control in Individuals with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Gait & Posture, 83, 268–279.
Williams, H. G., Pfeiffer, K. A., O'Neill, J. R., Dowda, M., McIver, K. L., Brown, W. H., Pate, R. R. (2008). Motor Skill Performance and Physical Activity in Preschool Children. Obesity (Silver Spring, Md.), 16(6), 1421–1426.
World Health Organization (WHO). https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/
obesity-and-overweight
Wrotniak, B. H., Epstein, L. H., Dorn, J. M., Jones, K. E., Kondilis, V. A. (2006). The Relationship Between Motor Proficiency and Physical Activity in Children. Pediatrics, 118(6), e1758–e1765.
Wuang, Y. P., Su, J. H., & Su, C. Y. (2012). Reliability and Responsiveness of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition Test in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder. Developmental medicine and child neurology, 54(2), 160–165.
Wu, C. L., Cheng, P. Y., Lin, C. H., Hung, Y. C., Tsao, Y. C., Chen, C.H. (2013) The Ratio and Correction Survey of Preschool Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder and Language Development Delay in Changhua county. Show Chwan Medical Journal, 12(1), 19-25.
Wu, S. K., Lin, H. H., Li, Y. C., Tsai, C. L., Cairney, J. (2010). Cardiopulmonary Fitness and Endurance in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 31(2), 345–349.
Zhu, Y. C., Cairney, J., Li, Y. C., Chen, W. Y., Chen, F. C., Wu, S. K. (2014). High Risk for Obesity in Children with a Subtype of Developmental Coordination Disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(7), 1727–1733.
Zhu, Y. C., Wu, S. K., Cairney, J. (2011). Obesity and Motor Coordination Ability in Taiwanese Children with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32(2), 801–807.
陸莉與劉鴻香 (2005)。畢保德圖畫詞彙測驗-修訂版(再版)。台北市，心理出版社。
衛生福利部國民健康署 (2018)。全民身體活動指引。台北市，健康署。
福利部國民健康署 (2018)。台灣肥胖防治策略。台北市，健康署。