【研究背景】
自我傷害行為依據其是否具有自殺意念可分為非自殺性自傷行為(non-suicidal self-injury, NSSI)與自殺企圖；兩者不管在社區或臨床場域都很常見，NSSI之盛行率為11~50%而自殺企圖之盛行率為4~33%。初次自傷行為較常出現在青少年階段，而首次自殺企圖之平均年齡較首次NSSI晚。自傷行為不僅造成身體損害，亦危害心理健康與人際關係，甚至有研究指出NSSI和自殺企圖皆與自殺身亡有關，故探討國中生自傷行為之發展歷程有其重要性。
過去有些學者認為未伴隨自殺意念之自傷行為與自殺企圖是異質性的，具有不同的風險因子；但亦有學者認為兩者具同質性，有類似的危險因子，二者是嚴重度的不同；而其中可能的發展歷程需要進一步釐清。
過去研究指出兒童期受不當對待都與NSSI或自殺企圖有關，其中以性虐待的關聯最大；身體虐待與自殺企圖的關聯研究結果較一致有關，而與NSSI之關係結果不穩定；亦有研究發現情緒虐待對NSSI和自殺企圖之相關較其他類型之不當對待強，且亦與情緒失調之關聯強；但忽略的部分因過去研究較少且有些研究未區分身體忽略與情緒忽略，因此未有一致結果。
研究已驗證在兒童期經歷不當對待之青少年容易具有高神經質特質，而高神經質者易發展出憂鬱症狀，且憂鬱症狀與NSSI和自殺企圖的關聯已被證實，但目前未有研究以結構方程模型同時檢驗兒童期受不當對待透過神經質與憂鬱症狀預測自傷行為之中介效果。
目前研究仍未解釋為何憂鬱的青少年會選擇以自傷行為作為紓解情緒之方式而非其他同樣具有紓解情緒功能之危險行為。社會認知論學者Bandura提出個體的行為受其對該行為結果的預期影響，故對自傷行為之結果預期可能會影響該行為的出現，但結果預期在憂鬱與自傷行為的關係中扮演中介還是調節角色仍未有定論。
過去研究亦指出同儕影響在青少年階段的重要性，而同儕影響亦會增加自傷行為的風險，目前未釐清其中歷程。社會認知論亦認為結果預期會受個體所處環境影響，故本研究欲探討同儕影響是否透過結果預期，進而影響自傷行為。
綜合上述，本研究推論兒童期受不當對待，特別是受情緒虐待之青少年容易具有較高程度的神經質特質，而情緒不穩定且容易產生憂鬱症狀，進而採取不適應之策略，例如自傷行為。而且當高憂鬱症狀者同時對自傷行為之結果具有高正向預期時，更加容易以自傷行為做為紓解情緒之管道，而個體可能受周圍同儕的影響而形成對自傷行為具有較高正向預期。
【研究假設】
本研究之假設如下：
(一) 非自殺性自傷行為組與自殺企圖組在兒童期受不當對待、神經質、憂鬱症狀、自傷之紓解情緒結果預期以及同儕影響上皆比終生無自傷組之得分高。
(二) 兒童期受不當對待到自傷行為發展歷程之整合性模型假設如下：(1)兒童期受不當對待可透過神經質與憂鬱症狀的中介，而正向預測自傷行為；(2)神經質可透過憂鬱症狀的中介，而正向預測自傷行為；(3) 自傷之紓解情緒結果預期可以調節憂鬱症狀到自傷行為之關係；(4) 自傷之紓解情緒結果預期可中介同儕影響到自傷行為之關係。
【研究方法】
本研究使用柯慧貞教授主持之「應用互動式情境遊戲與故事敘說數位平台於青少年衝突管理與情緒管理技巧訓練之成效：自傷與霸凌行為之預防(NSC100-2632-S-468-001-MY3)」之科技部計畫案所蒐集之部分資料進行分析，本研究於民國101年9月26日經亞洲大學醫學研究倫理委員會審核通過(編號10109002)。
參與者：採用其橫斷研究的部分資料，乃透過叢集抽樣台南市某所國中之一、二年級學生為對象。依據過去一年內有無自傷行為與有無自殺意念以及最近一次自傷有無自殺意念將參與者分成自殺企圖組、NSSI組以及終生無自傷組，有效樣本共462份。
研究工具：包含個人基本資料、兒童期虐待與忽視問卷、五因素性格量表簡版、柯氏憂鬱量表、自我傷害行為結果預期問卷、自我傷害行為問卷。
研究流程：由已受訓之研究員，於課堂上進行團體施測。施測前詳述施測目的與流程，並強調保密與匿名性；取得參與者同意並簽署同意書後，再填寫量表。問卷收回後進行資料歸檔、除錯後再進行分析。
統計分析：使用SPSS 20.0版進行描述性統計、相關分析以及單因子變異數分析，再使用SmartPLS 3.0版檢驗模型。
【研究結果】
只有兒童期性虐待之變項於三組間無顯著差異，而事後檢定顯示在情緒虐待與忽視、神經質、憂鬱症狀、自傷之紓解情緒結果預期、同儕態度、同儕曾自傷以及同儕邀約之變項上，自殺企圖組之得分高於NSSI組和無自傷組，而NSSI組亦高於無自傷組；自殺企圖組之身體虐待與忽視之得分高於NSSI組和終生無自傷組，但NSSI組與終生無自傷組之間未有顯著差異。
以結構方程模型檢驗兒童期受不當對待、神經質、憂鬱症狀、自傷之紓解情緒結果預期以及同儕影響對自傷行為之預測模式，結果顯示情緒虐待(β=.305, p<.001)與身體忽視(β=.148, p=.004)對神經質有直接預測效果，情緒虐待(β=.196, p=.003)、情緒忽視(β=.122, p=.001)以及身體忽視(β=.148, p=.017)對憂鬱症狀亦有直接預測效果；且神經質(β=.397, p<.001)對憂鬱症狀有直接預測效果，而憂鬱症狀(β=.283, p<.001)對自傷行為有直接預測效果；同儕態度(β=.163, p<.001)、同儕曾自傷過(β=.314, p<.001)以及同儕邀約(β=.149, p=.002)對自傷之紓解情緒結果預期有直接預測效果，而自傷之紓解情緒結果預期對憂鬱症狀與自傷行為之關係具有調節效果(交互作用之β=.146, p<.001)；整體預測模式對自傷行為的解釋量達42.7%。
 
【結論與建議】
本研究結論：(一)國中生非自殺性自傷行為與自殺企圖具有類似的風險因子，二者僅嚴重度不同，而自殺企圖較為嚴重；(二)對兒童期受不當對待(特別是受情緒虐待)的國中生而言，此早期環境對其之負面影響可能透過個體之性格與情緒狀態，使其容易出現自傷行為；當同儕對自傷行為具正向態度或邀約或曾自傷過則容易使個體形成對自傷行為之高紓解情緒結果預期，而當憂鬱的青少年同時對自傷行為具高紓解情緒結果預期，更容易出現自傷行為。
本研究採以橫斷設計，建議以縱貫研究進一步探討變項間的因果關係；由於本研究僅以自陳問卷蒐集資料，建議未來可採取多種衡鑑工具。鑒於女性比男性更容易出現自殺企圖，亦有研究發現非自殺性自傷行為上的性別差異，故建議未來可分開探討不同性別的兒童期受不當對待至自傷行為之可能路徑是否不同。另亦可研討對於自傷行為結果預期與其他適當情緒調控方法的教育策略，及探討其對自傷行為的防治成效。

Self-injurious behaviors (SIB), categorized into suicide attempts and non-suicidal self-injuries based on the presence or absence of suicidal ideation, are prevalent among adolescents and an important risk factor of suicide death. Past studies have shown the association between childhood maltreatments and SIB, but did not further clarify the pathway between the two variables. This study examined the similarity and difference between the two types of SIB, and proposed an integrated model of SIB to explain the effect of childhood maltreatments. Self-report data were collected from 462 school-based adolescents (51.9 % female), which included a structured questionnaire that asked participants to report their demographic information, childhood maltreatments, neuroticism, depressive symptom, self-injurious outcome expectancy, peer influence and their self-injurious behavior in the past year. Analyses of variance, post-hoc pairwise comparisons, and structural equation modeling analysis were conducted for data analysis. Results revealed that both of the suicide attempt group and NSSI group showed higher levels of childhood maltreatment, neuroticism, depressive symptoms, outcome expectancy, and peer influences compared to the no-SIB group. Furthermore, neuroticism and depressive symptoms mediated the relationship between childhood maltreatment and SIB. Self-injurious outcome expectancy moderated the relationship between depressive symptom and SIB. Peer influence (peer with SIB history, peer’s attitude to SIB, and peer invitation of SIB) predicted SIB mediated through self-injurious outcome expectancies. These results provided empirical evidence to conclude that suicide attempts and NSSI have similar risk factors, but suicide attempts showed a higher severity level. In addition, the study also illustrated the course of early environment influence to SIB among adolescents.

中文文獻
江依潔. (2014). 紓解情緒的自傷預期在國中生憂鬱與自傷頻率關係中的角色. 亞洲大學. 台中.
林毓祺. (2005). 兒童虐待對憂鬱母親及其下一代的憂鬱問題之影響. 成功大學. Available from Airiti AiritiLibrary database. (2005年)
陳盈辰. (2007). 國中生自傷行為之盛行率與心理因素之相關研究. 臺灣大學心理學研究所學位論文, 1-68.
陳進義,柯慧貞,吳詠葳(2010).Factor structure, reliability and validity of the self-injurious behavior outcome expectancy and refusal self-efficacy questionnaires in an adolescentsample, 2010年台灣自殺防治學會年會暨國際學術研討會,台北.
柯慧貞主持 (2014)。台灣國中生網路成癮之預防教育與其成效評估研究。 行政院國家科學委員會補助專題研究計畫期末報告(編號：NSC101-2511-S-468-002-MY3)，未出版。
董旭英, & 譚子文. (2011). 台灣都會區國中生目睹婚姻暴力, 受虐經驗與自我傷害行為之關聯性. 輔導與諮商學報, 33(1), 1-21.

英文文獻
Aas, M., Henry, C., Bellivier, F., Lajnef, M., Gard, S., Kahn, J.-P., . . . Leboyer, M. (2017). Affective lability mediates the association between childhood trauma and suicide attempts, mixed episodes and co-morbid anxiety disorders in bipolar disorders. Psychological medicine, 47(5), 902-912.
Asarnow, J. R., Porta, G., Spirito, A., Emslie, G., Clarke, G., Wagner, K. D., . . . McCracken, J. (2011). Suicide attempts and nonsuicidal self-injury in the treatment of resistant depression in adolescents: findings from the TORDIA study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 50(8), 772-781.
Auerbach, R. P., Kim, J. C., Chango, J. M., Spiro, W. J., Cha, C., Gold, J., . . . Nock, M. K. (2014). Adolescent nonsuicidal self-injury: examining the role of child abuse, comorbidity, and disinhibition. Psychiatry research, 220(1), 579-584.
Baiden, P., Stewart, S. L., & Fallon, B. (2017). The role of adverse childhood experiences as determinants of non-suicidal self-injury among children and adolescents referred to community and inpatient mental health settings. Child Abuse & Neglect, 69, 163-176.
Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American psychologist, 44(9), 1175.
Barrocas, A. L., Giletta, M., Hankin, B. L., Prinstein, M. J., & Abela, J. R. (2015). Nonsuicidal self-injury in adolescence: longitudinal course, trajectories, and intrapersonal predictors. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 43(2), 369-380.
Bearman, P. S., & Moody, J. (2004). Suicide and friendships among American adolescents. American journal of public health, 94(1), 89-95.
Beautrais, A. L. (2000). Risk factors for suicide and attempted suicide among young people. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 34(3), 420-436.
Beautrais, A. L. (2002). Risk factors for serious suicide attempts among young people. Suicide Prevention, 167-181.
Berlin, M., Vinnerljung, B., & Hjern, A. (2011). School performance in primary school and psychosocial problems in young adulthood among care leavers from long term foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(12), 2489-2497.
Bernburg, J. G., Thorlindsson, T., & Sigfusdottir, I. D. (2009). The spreading of suicidal behavior: The contextual effect of community household poverty on adolescent suicidal behavior and the mediating role of suicide suggestion. Social science & medicine, 68(2), 380-389.
Bernstein, D. P., Fink, L., Handelsman, L., Foote, J., Lovejoy, M., Wenzel, K., . . . Ruggiero, J. (1994). Initial reliability and validity of a new retrospective measure of child abuse and neglect. The American journal of psychiatry, 151(8), 1132.
Brausch, A. M., & Boone, S. D. (2015). Frequency of nonsuicidal self‐injury in adolescents: Differences in suicide attempts, substance use, and disordered eating. Suicide and life-threatening behavior, 45(5), 612-622.
Brausch, A. M., & Gutierrez, P. M. (2010). Differences in non-suicidal self-injury and suicide attempts in adolescents. Journal of youth and adolescence, 39(3), 233-242.
Brent, D. A., Perper, J. A., Moritz, G., Allman, C., Friend, A., Roth, C., . . . Baugher, M. (1993). Psychiatric risk factors for adolescent suicide: a case-control study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32(3), 521-529.
Brezo, J., Paris, J., & Turecki, G. (2006). Personality traits as correlates of suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and suicide completions: a systematic review. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 113(3), 180-206.
Brown, J., Cohen, P., Johnson, J. G., & Smailes, E. M. (1999). Childhood abuse and neglect: specificity of effects on adolescent and young adult depression and suicidality. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(12), 1490-1496.
Burke, A. K., Galfalvy, H., Everett, B., Currier, D., Zelazny, J., Oquendo, M. A., . . . Birmaher, B. (2010). Effect of exposure to suicidal behavior on suicide attempt in a high-risk sample of offspring of depressed parents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(2), 114-121.
Burns, E. E., Jackson, J. L., & Harding, H. G. (2010). Child maltreatment, emotion regulation, and posttraumatic stress: The impact of emotional abuse. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 19(8), 801-819.
Calvete, E., Orue, I., & Gamez-Guadix, M. (2016). Do extraversion and neuroticism moderate the association between bullying victimization and internalizing symptoms? A three-wave longitudinal study. Journal of school psychology, 56, 1-11.
Campos, R. C., Holden, R. R., Laranjeira, P., Troister, T., Oliveira, A. R., Costa, F., . . . Fresca, N. (2016). Self-report depressive symptoms do not directly predict suicidality in nonclinical individuals: Contributions toward a more psychosocial approach to suicide risk. Death studies, 40(6), 335-349.
Chen, M., & Piedmont, R. (1999). Development and validation of the NEO-PI-R for a Taiwanese sample. Progress in Asian social psychology, 2, 105-119.
Cheng, H., & Furnham, A. (2003). Personality, self-esteem, and demographic predictions of happiness and depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 34(6), 921-942.
Chien, L.-L., Ko, H.-C., & Wu, J. Y.-W. (2007). The five-factor model of personality and depressive symptoms: One-year follow-up. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(5), 1013-1023.
Chin, W. W. (1998). The partial least squares approach to structural equation modeling. Modern methods for business research, 295(2), 295-336.
Claes, L., Muehlenkamp, J., Vandereycken, W., Hamelinck, L., Martens, H., & Claes, S. (2010). Comparison of non-suicidal self-injurious behavior and suicide attempts in patients admitted to a psychiatric crisis unit. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(1), 83-87.
De Leo, D., & Heller, T. (2008). Social modeling in the transmission of suicidality. Crisis, 29(1), 11-19.
Di Pierro, R., Sarno, I., Perego, S., Gallucci, M., & Madeddu, F. (2012). Adolescent nonsuicidal self-injury: the effects of personality traits, family relationships and maltreatment on the presence and severity of behaviours. European child & adolescent psychiatry, 21(9), 511-520.
Dickstein, D. P., Puzia, M. E., Cushman, G. K., Weissman, A. B., Wegbreit, E., Kim, K. L., . . . Spirito, A. (2015). Self‐injurious implicit attitudes among adolescent suicide attempters versus those engaged in nonsuicidal self‐injury. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 56(10), 1127-1136.
Dube, S. R., Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Chapman, D. P., Williamson, D. F., & Giles, W. H. (2001). Childhood abuse, household dysfunction, and the risk of attempted suicide throughout the life span: findings from the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study. Jama, 286(24), 3089-3096.
Dunne, E. M., Freedlander, J., Coleman, K., & Katz, E. C. (2013). Impulsivity, expectancies, and evaluations of expected outcomes as predictors of alcohol use and related problems. The American journal of drug and alcohol abuse, 39(3), 204-210.
Eskin, M., Palova, E., & Krokavcova, M. (2014). Suicidal behavior and attitudes in Slovak and Turkish high school students: A cross-cultural investigation. Archives of Suicide Research, 18(1), 58-73.
Feigelman, W., & Gorman, B. S. (2008). Assessing the effects of peer suicide on youth suicide. Suicide and life-threatening behavior, 38(2), 181-194.
Feng, J.-Y., Chang, Y.-T., Chang, H.-Y., Fetzer, S., & Wang, J.-D. (2015). Prevalence of different forms of child maltreatment among Taiwanese adolescents: A population-based study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 42, 10-19.
Fergusson, D. M., Beautrais, A. L., & Horwood, L. J. (2003). Vulnerability and resiliency to suicidal behaviours in young people. Psychological medicine, 33(1), 61-73.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Journal of marketing research, 382-388.
Fox, K. R., Franklin, J. C., Ribeiro, J. D., Kleiman, E. M., Bentley, K. H., & Nock, M. K. (2015). Meta-analysis of risk factors for nonsuicidal self-injury. Clinical psychology review, 42, 156-167.
Franzke, I., Wabnitz, P., & Catani, C. (2015). Dissociation as a mediator of the relationship between childhood trauma and nonsuicidal self-injury in females: A path analytic approach. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 16(3), 286-302.
Garisch, J. A., & Wilson, M. S. (2015). Prevalence, correlates, and prospective predictors of non-suicidal self-injury among New Zealand adolescents: cross-sectional and longitudinal survey data. Child and adolescent psychiatry and mental health, 9(1), 28.
Gilbert, R., Widom, C. S., Browne, K., Fergusson, D., Webb, E., & Janson, S. (2009). Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. The Lancet, 373(9657), 68-81.
Glassman, L. H., Weierich, M. R., Hooley, J. M., Deliberto, T. L., & Nock, M. K. (2007). Child maltreatment, non-suicidal self-injury, and the mediating role of self-criticism. Behaviour research and therapy, 45(10), 2483-2490.
Goldstein, B. L., Kotov, R., Perlman, G., Watson, D., & Klein, D. N. (2017). Trait and facet-level predictors of first-onset depressive and anxiety disorders in a community sample of adolescent girls. Psychological medicine, 1-11.
Gratz, K. L. (2001). Measurement of deliberate self-harm: Preliminary data on the Deliberate Self-Harm Inventory. Journal of psychopathology and behavioral assessment, 23(4), 253-263.
Gutierrez, P. M., Osman, A., Barrios, F. X., & Kopper, B. A. (2001). Development and initial validation of the Self-Harm Behavior Questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 77(3), 475-490.
Guvendeger Doksat, N., Zahmacioglu, O., Ciftci Demirci, A., Kocaman, G. M., & Erdogan, A. (2017). Association of suicide attempts and non-suicidal self-injury behaviors with substance use and family characteristics among children and adolescents seeking treatment for substance use disorder. Substance use & misuse, 52(5), 604-613.
Hadland, S. E., Wood, E., Dong, H., Marshall, B. D., Kerr, T., Montaner, J. S., & DeBeck, K. (2015). Suicide attempts and childhood maltreatment among street youth: a prospective cohort study. Pediatrics, 136(3), 440-449.
Hair Jr, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C., & Sarstedt, M. (2016). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM): Sage Publications.
Hamza, C. A., Stewart, S. L., & Willoughby, T. (2012). Examining the link between nonsuicidal self-injury and suicidal behavior: A review of the literature and an integrated model. Clinical psychology review, 32(6), 482-495.
Hasking, P. (2017). Differentiating non-suicidal self-injury and risky drinking: a role for outcome expectancies and self-efficacy beliefs. Prevention science, 1-10.
Hasking, P., Andrews, T., & Martin, G. (2013). The role of exposure to self-injury among peers in predicting later self-injury. Journal of youth and adolescence, 42(10), 1543-1556.
Hasking, P., & Boyes, M. (2017). The Non‐Suicidal Self‐Injury Expectancy Questionnaire: Factor structure and initial validation. Clinical Psychologist.
Hasking, P., & Rose, A. (2016). A preliminary application of social cognitive theory to nonsuicidal self-injury. Journal of youth and adolescence, 45(8), 1560-1574.
Heath, N. L., Ross, S., Toste, J. R., Charlebois, A., & Nedecheva, T. (2009). Retrospective analysis of social factors and nonsuicidal self-injury among young adults. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 41(3), 180.
Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the academy of marketing science, 43(1), 115-135.
Hilt, L. M., Cha, C. B., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2008). Nonsuicidal self-injury in young adolescent girls: moderators of the distress-function relationship. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 76(1), 63.
Ho, T.-p., Leung, P. W.-l., Hung, S.-F., Lee, C.-c., & Tang, C.-p. (2000). The mental health of the peers of suicide completers and attempters. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41(3), 301-308.
Infurna, M. R., Reichl, C., Parzer, P., Schimmenti, A., Bifulco, A., & Kaess, M. (2016). Associations between depression and specific childhood experiences of abuse and neglect: a meta-analysis. Journal of affective disorders, 190, 47-55.
Jacobson, C. M., Muehlenkamp, J. J., Miller, A. L., & Turner, J. B. (2008). Psychiatric impairment among adolescents engaging in different types of deliberate self-harm. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 37(2), 363-375.
Jahn, D. R., Cukrowicz, K. C., Linton, K., & Prabhu, F. (2011). The mediating effect of perceived burdensomeness on the relation between depressive symptoms and suicide ideation in a community sample of older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 15(2), 214-220.
Joiner, T. E., Sachs-Ericsson, N. J., Wingate, L. R., Brown, J. S., Anestis, M. D., & Selby, E. A. (2007). Childhood physical and sexual abuse and lifetime number of suicide attempts: A persistent and theoretically important relationship. Behaviour research and therapy, 45(3), 539-547.
Kaess, M., Parzer, P., Mattern, M., Plener, P. L., Bifulco, A., Resch, F., & Brunner, R. (2013). Adverse childhood experiences and their impact on frequency, severity, and the individual function of nonsuicidal self-injury in youth. Psychiatry research, 206(2), 265-272.
Kandel, D. B. (1978). Homophily, selection, and socialization in adolescent friendships. American journal of Sociology, 84(2), 427-436.
Kaufman, J. (1991). Depressive disorders in maltreated children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30(2), 257-265.
Kiekens, G., Bruffaerts, R., Nock, M. K., Van de Ven, M., Witteman, C., Mortier, P., . . . Claes, L. (2015). Non-suicidal self-injury among Dutch and Belgian adolescents: Personality, stress and coping. European Psychiatry, 30(6), 743-749. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2015.06.007
Klonsky, E. D., & Moyer, A. (2008). Childhood sexual abuse and non-suicidal self-injury: meta-analysis. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 192(3), 166-170.
Klonsky, E. D., Victor, S. E., & Saffer, B. Y. (2014). Nonsuicidal self-injury: what we know, and what we need to know: SAGE Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA.
Ko, H. (1989). The comparison of the dexamethasone suppression test, dysfunctional attitude style, and life stress between patients with endogenous and nonendogenous depression. Taipei: Institute of Psychology, National Taiwan University.
Kokkonen, M., & Pulkkinen, L. (2001). Extraversion and neuroticism as antecedents of emotion regulation and dysregulation in adulthood. European Journal of Personality, 15(6), 407-424.
Lakdawalla, Z., & Hankin, B. L. (2008). Personality as a prospective vulnerability to dysphoric symptoms among college students: Proposed mechanisms. Journal of psychopathology and behavioral assessment, 30(2), 121-131.
Lam, D., Smith, N., Checkley, S., Rijsdijk, F., & Sham, P. (2003). Effect of neuroticism, response style and information processing on depression severity in a clinically depressed sample. Psychological medicine, 33(3), 469-479.
Laukkanen, E., Rissanen, M.-L., Honkalampi, K., Kylmä, J., Tolmunen, T., & Hintikka, J. (2009). The prevalence of self-cutting and other self-harm among 13-to 18-year-old Finnish adolescents. Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology, 44(1), 23-28.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., & Seeley, J. R. (1993). Psychosocial characteristics of adolescents with a history of suicide attempt. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32(1), 60-68.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., & Seeley, J. R. (1994). Psychosocial risk factors for future adolescent suicide attempts. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 62(2), 297.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., & Seeley, J. R. (1996). Adolescent suicidal ideation and attempts: Prevalence, risk factors, and clinical implications. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 3(1), 25-46.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., Seeley, J. R., & Baldwin, C. L. (2001). Gender differences in suicide attempts from adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(4), 427-434.
Li, X., Wang, Z., Hou, Y., Wang, Y., Liu, J., & Wang, C. (2014). Effects of childhood trauma on personality in a sample of Chinese adolescents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(4), 788-796.
Lin, M.-P., You, J., Ren, Y., Wu, J. Y.-W., Hu, W.-H., Yen, C.-F., & Zhang, X. (2017). Prevalence of nonsuicidal self-injury and its risk and protective factors among adolescents in Taiwan. Psychiatry research, 255, 119-127.
Lin, P.-Z., Bai, H.-Y., Sun, J.-W., Guo, W., Zhang, H.-H., & Cao, F.-L. (2017). Association between child maltreatment and prospective and retrospective memory in adolescents: the mediatory effect of neuroticism. Child Abuse & Neglect, 65, 58-67.
Linehan, M. (1993). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder: Guilford press.
Linehan, M. M. (1981). Suicidal behaviors questionnaire. Unpublished inventory, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.
Linehan, M. M., Camper, P., Chiles, J. A., Strosahl, K., & Shearin, E. (1987). Interpersonal problem solving and parasuicide. Cognitive therapy and research, 11(1), 1-12.
Linehan, M. M., Chiles, J. A., Egan, K. J., Devine, R. H., & Laffaw, J. A. (1986). Presenting problems of parasuicides versus suicide ideators and nonsuicidal psychiatric patients. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 54(6), 880.
Linehan, M. M., Comtois, K. A., Brown, M. Z., Heard, H. L., & Wagner, A. (2006). Suicide Attempt Self-Injury Interview (SASII): development, reliability, and validity of a scale to assess suicide attempts and intentional self-injury. Psychological assessment, 18(3), 303.
Lipschitz, D. S., Bernstein, D. P., Winegar, R. K., & Southwick, S. M. (1999). Hospitalized adolescents' reports of sexual and physical abuse: A comparison of two self-report measures. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12(4), 641-654.
Liu, J., Fang, Y., Gong, J., Cui, X., Meng, T., Xiao, B., . . . Luo, X. (2017). Associations between suicidal behavior and childhood abuse and neglect: A meta-analysis. Journal of affective disorders.
Liu, R. X. (2006). Vulnerability to friends’ suicide influence: The moderating effects of gender and adolescent depression. Journal of youth and adolescence, 35(3), 454.
Liu, Z.-Z., Chen, H., Bo, Q.-G., Chen, R.-H., Li, F.-W., Lv, L., . . . Liu, X. (2017). Psychological and behavioral characteristics of suicide attempts and non-suicidal self-injury in Chinese adolescents. Journal of affective disorders.
Logan, J. E., Leeb, R. T., & Barker, L. E. (2009). Gender-specific mental and behavioral outcomes among physically abused high-risk seventh-grade youths. Public Health Reports, 124(2), 234-245.
MacMillan, H. L. (2000). Child maltreatment: What we know in the year 2000. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 45(8), 702-709.
Maniglio, R. (2011). The role of child sexual abuse in the etiology of suicide and non‐suicidal self‐injury. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 124(1), 30-41.
Mars, B., Heron, J., Crane, C., Hawton, K., Kidger, J., Lewis, G., . . . Gunnell, D. (2014). Differences in risk factors for self-harm with and without suicidal intent: Findings from the ALSPAC cohort. Journal of affective disorders, 168, 407-414.
Morrell, H. E., Cohen, L. M., & McChargue, D. E. (2010). Depression vulnerability predicts cigarette smoking among college students: Gender and negative reinforcement expectancies as contributing factors. Addictive Behaviors, 35(6), 607-611.
Moskvina, V., Farmer, A., Swainson, V., O'leary, J., Gunasinghe, C., Owen, M., . . . Korszun, A. (2007). Interrelationship of childhood trauma, neuroticism, and depressive phenotype. Depression and anxiety, 24(3), 163-168.
Muehlenkamp, J. J., Claes, L., Havertape, L., & Plener, P. L. (2012). International prevalence of adolescent non-suicidal self-injury and deliberate self-harm. Child and adolescent psychiatry and mental health, 6(1), 10.
Muehlenkamp, J. J., Kerr, P. L., Bradley, A. R., & Larsen, M. A. (2010). Abuse subtypes and nonsuicidal self-injury: Preliminary evidence of complex emotion regulation patterns. The Journal of nervous and mental disease, 198(4), 258-263.
Nixon, M. K., Cloutier, P., & Jansson, S. M. (2008). Nonsuicidal self-harm in youth: a population-based survey. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 178(3), 306-312.
Nock, M. K. (2009). Why do people hurt themselves? New insights into the nature and functions of self-injury. Current directions in psychological science, 18(2), 78-83.
Nock, M. K. (2010). Self-injury. Annual review of clinical psychology, 6, 339-363.
Nock, M. K., Borges, G., Bromet, E. J., Cha, C. B., Kessler, R. C., & Lee, S. (2008). Suicide and suicidal behavior. Epidemiologic reviews, 30(1), 133-154.
Nock, M. K., Green, J. G., Hwang, I., McLaughlin, K. A., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2013). Prevalence, correlates, and treatment of lifetime suicidal behavior among adolescents: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. JAMA psychiatry, 70(3), 300-310.
Nock, M. K., Holmberg, E. B., Photos, V. I., & Michel, B. D. (2007). Self-Injurious Thoughts and Behaviors Interview: development, reliability, and validity in an adolescent sample.
Nock, M. K., & Prinstein, M. J. (2005). Contextual features and behavioral functions of self-mutilation among adolescents. Journal of abnormal psychology, 114(1), 140.
Norman, R. E., Byambaa, M., De, R., Butchart, A., Scott, J., & Vos, T. (2012). The long-term health consequences of child physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS medicine, 9(11), e1001349.
Ono, K., Takaesu, Y., Nakai, Y., Shimura, A., Ono, Y., Murakoshi, A., . . . Inoue, T. (2017). Associations among depressive symptoms, childhood abuse, neuroticism, and adult stressful life events in the general adult population. Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment, 13, 477.
Patros, C. H., Hudec, K. L., Alderson, R. M., Kasper, L. J., Davidson, C., & Wingate, L. R. (2013). Symptoms of attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) moderate suicidal behaviors in college students with depressed mood. Journal of clinical psychology, 69(9), 980-993.
Paulus, D. J., Vanwoerden, S., Norton, P. J., & Sharp, C. (2016). Emotion dysregulation, psychological inflexibility, and shame as explanatory factors between neuroticism and depression. Journal of affective disorders, 190, 376-385.
Plener, P. L., Schumacher, T. S., Munz, L. M., & Groschwitz, R. C. (2015). The longitudinal course of non-suicidal self-injury and deliberate self-harm: a systematic review of the literature. Borderline personality disorder and emotion dysregulation, 2(1), 2.
Prinstein, M. J., Heilbron, N., Guerry, J. D., Franklin, J. C., Rancourt, D., Simon, V., & Spirito, A. (2010). Peer influence and nonsuicidal self injury: Longitudinal results in community and clinically-referred adolescent samples. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 38(5), 669-682.
Sansone, R. A., Wiederman, M. W., & Sansone, L. A. (1998). The Self-Harm Inventory (SHI): development of a scale for identifying self-destructive behaviors and borderline personality disorder. Journal of clinical psychology, 54(7), 973-983.
Serafini, G., Canepa, G., Adavastro, G., Nebbia, J., Belvederi Murri, M., Erbuto, D., . . . Flouri, E. (2017). The relationship between childhood maltreatment and non-suicidal self-injury: a systematic review. Frontiers in psychiatry, 8, 149.
Shenk, C. E., Noll, J. G., & Cassarly, J. A. (2010). A multiple mediational test of the relationship between childhood maltreatment and non-suicidal self-injury. Journal of youth and adolescence, 39(4), 335-342.
Shipman, K., Zeman, J., Penza, S., & Champion, K. (2000). Emotion management skills in sexually maltreated and nonmaltreated girls: A developmental psychopathology perspective. Development and psychopathology, 12(1), 47-62.
Sigfusdottir, I. D., Asgeirsdottir, B. B., Gudjonsson, G. H., & Sigurdsson, J. F. (2013). Suicidal ideations and attempts among adolescents subjected to childhood sexual abuse and family conflict/violence: the mediating role of anger and depressed mood. Journal of adolescence, 36(6), 1227-1236.
Silverman, A. B., Reinherz, H. Z., & Giaconia, R. M. (1996). The long-term sequelae of child and adolescent abuse: A longitudinal community study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 20(8), 709-723.
Smith, N. B., Steele, A. M., Weitzman, M. L., Trueba, A. F., & Meuret, A. E. (2015). Investigating the Role of Self-Disgust in Nonsuicidal Self-Injury. Archives of Suicide Research, 19(1), 60-74.
Tang, T. C., Ko, C. H., Yen, J. Y., Lin, H. C., Liu, S. C., Huang, C. F., & Yen, C. F. (2009). Suicide and its association with individual, family, peer, and school factors in an adolescent population in southern Taiwan. Suicide and life-threatening behavior, 39(1), 91-102.
Tickle, J. J., Hull, J. G., Sargent, J. D., Dalton, M. A., & Heatherton, T. F. (2006). A structural equation model of social influences and exposure to media smoking on adolescent smoking. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 28(2), 117-129.
Tresno, F., Ito, Y., & Mearns, J. (2013). Risk factors for nonsuicidal self‐injury in Japanese college students: The moderating role of mood regulation expectancies. International journal of psychology, 48(6), 1009-1017.
Tsai, M. H., Chen, Y. H., Chen, C. D., Hsiao, C. Y., & Chien, C. H. (2011). Deliberate self‐harm by Taiwanese adolescents. Acta Paediatrica, 100(11).
Wan, G. W., & Leung, P. W. (2010). Factors accounting for youth suicide attempt in Hong Kong: A model building. Journal of adolescence, 33(5), 575-582.
Wan, Y., Chen, J., Sun, Y., & Tao, F. (2015). Impact of childhood abuse on the risk of non-suicidal self-injury in mainland Chinese adolescents. PloS one, 10(6), e0131239.
Weierich, M. R., & Nock, M. K. (2008). Posttraumatic stress symptoms mediate the relation between childhood sexual abuse and nonsuicidal self-injury. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 76(1), 39.
Werts, C. E., Linn, R. L., & Jöreskog, K. G. (1974). Intraclass reliability estimates: Testing structural assumptions. Educational and Psychological measurement, 34(1), 25-33.
Wu, J. Y. W., Ko, H.-C., Wong, T.-Y., Wu, L.-A., & Oei, T. P. (2016). Positive outcome expectancy mediates the relationship between peer influence and Internet gaming addiction among adolescents in Taiwan. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 19(1), 49-55.
Yates, T. M. (2004). The developmental psychopathology of self-injurious behavior: Compensatory regulation in posttraumatic adaptation. Clinical psychology review, 24(1), 35-74.
Yeatts, P. E., Martin, S. B., & Petrie, T. A. (2017). Physical fitness as a moderator of neuroticism and depression in adolescent boys and girls. Personality and Individual Differences, 114, 30-35.
You, J., Lin, M.-P., & Leung, F. (2015). A longitudinal moderated mediation model of nonsuicidal self-injury among adolescents. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 43(2), 381-390.
You, J. N., Lin, M. P., Xu, S., & Hu, W. H. (2016). Big Five personality traits in the occurrence and repetition of nonsuicidal self-injury among adolescents: The mediating effects of depressive symptoms. Personality and Individual Differences, 101, 227-231. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.05.057
Zamboanga, B. L., Schwartz, S. J., Ham, L. S., Jarvis, L. H., & Olthuis, J. V. (2009). Do alcohol expectancy outcomes and valuations mediate peer influences and lifetime alcohol use among early adolescents? The Journal of genetic psychology, 170(4), 359-376.
Zatti, C., Rosa, V., Barros, A., Valdivia, L., Calegaro, V. C., Freitas, L. H., . . . Schuch, F. B. (2017). Childhood trauma and suicide attempt: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies from the last decade. Psychiatry research, 256, 353-358.
Zielinski, M. J., Veilleux, J. C., Winer, E. S., & Nadorff, M. R. (2017). A short-term longitudinal examination of the relations between depression, anhedonia, and self-injurious thoughts and behaviors in adults with a history of self-injury. Comprehensive psychiatry, 73, 187-195.
Zoroglu, S. S., Tuzun, U., Sar, V., Tutkun, H., Savacs, H. A., Ozturk, M., . . . Kora, M. E. (2003). Suicide attempt and self‐mutilation among Turkish high school students in relation with abuse, neglect and dissociation. Psychiatry and clinical neurosciences, 57(1), 119-126.