摘要
過去的研究發現在選擇性注意力（例如，整體局部處理系統）的任務上，優秀排球運動員的表現要優於非運動員。然而，過去的研究沒有對排球運動員的位置做區分以及僅使用平均反應時間來推論信息處理歷程所導致不一致的研究結果。因此，本研究導入一種新穎的系統多因子技術（system factorial technology, SFT）來進一步檢驗不同位置的排球運動員在選擇性注意力（整體局部處理系統）下的決策機制（處理架構，終止原則，處理容量）。在本次實驗中一共招募了13名現役甲一級排球運動員以及10名年齡相符且無運動專長的大學生作為對照組。此外，根據排球比賽中特定的工作（進攻組n = 5；防守組n = 4；混合組n = 4），將十三名排球運動員分為三個小組。在受試者進行整體局部處理檢測的任務中同時記錄每個受試者的行為表現，再透過系統多因子技術檢驗三個不同位置的排球小組和對照組之間的決策機制差異。行為的研究結果發現，排球組和對照組在平均反應時間和錯誤率上沒有差異。此外，在系統多因子技術的結果中發現所有組別在整體局部處理檢測任務中都採用了序列處理和自我終止原則，但進攻組和對照組在處理容量被推論為有限的容量，而防守組和混合組則被推論為無限容量。綜合所有結果，這項研究為進一步理解過往研究中平均值測量方法無法推論的決策歷程提供了新的方法。儘管結果發現優秀排球運動員與非對照組在決策機制中沒有差異，但在整體局部處理檢測任務中的處理容量中卻觀察到了顯著差異。因此，處理容量可以成為一個更好區分不同位置的排球運動員和對照組之間的指標。

Although some of the prior studies demonstrated elite volleyball players outperform non-athletes on tasks tapping selective attention (e.g., global-local processing), inconsistent findings are seen across studies, which may be in part due to individual differences associated with positional roles of volleyball players or the measurement methods that only using the mean reaction time to infer the information processing capacity. Therefore, the aim of this study was to use a novel theoretical-based mathematical tool (i.e., System Factorial Technology, SFT) to further investigate the decisional mechanisms (i.e., processing architecture, stopping rule, workload capacity) underlying athletic superiority in selective attention (i.e., global-local processing) in volleyball players, and the modulating role of playing position. Thirteen elite volleyball players were recruited in the division I athletic group and ten students from normal population who reported no historical specialization in any sports were recruited as the control group. Moreover, thirteen players were classified into three subgroups according to their specific position roles (Striker n = 5; Defender n = 4; Mixed n = 4) in volleyball games. Behavioral performance was recorded simultaneously while participants performing a global-local detection task. SFT was employed to evaluate the decisional mechanisms (i.e., processing architecture, stopping rule, workload capacity) across subgroups of volleyball players and control group. The behavioral data revealed that volleyball and control groups showed no difference in the reaction time and error rate. In terms of SFT, results indicated the Striker and Control groups adopted a serial processing and self-terminating stopping rule with limited to unlimited capacity in the global-local detection task, while Defender and Mixed groups inferred a serial architecture and self-terminating along with unlimited capacity. Thus, the mean measures including mean RTs and error rates were unable to differentiate the performance differences across subgroups of volleyball players and non-athletes, which may be due to the limitation of the use of mean measures in inferring individual differences in information processing. Taken together, this study provides a new evidence for further understanding the decision strategy that unable to inferred by the mean measurement method in the past studies. Although the results indicating no decision mechanism difference between different positional roles of elite volleyball players and non-athletes, while a significant difference was observed in the processing capacity in the global-local detection task. Thus, the processing capacity may be more reliable to demonstrate the difference between different positional roles of elite volleyball players and non-athletes.

Alves, H., Voss, M., Boot, W. R., Deslandes, A., Cossich, V., Inacio Salles, J., & Kramer, A. F. (2013). Perceptual-cognitive expertise in elite volleyball players. Frontiers in psychology, 4, 36.
Ashby, F. G., & Townsend, J. T. (1980). Decomposing the reaction time distribution: Pure insertion and selective influence revisited. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 21(2), 93-123.
Bashore, T. R., Ally, B., van Wouwe, N. C., Neimat, J. S., van den Wildenberg, W. P., & Wylie, S. A. (2018). Exposing an “Intangible” cognitive skill among collegiate football players: II. Enhanced response impulse control. Frontiers in psychology, 9, 1496.
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. J. S. A. (1996). Beck depression inventory-II. The Psychological Corporation, 78, 490-498.
Bosel, C. P. A. R. (1998). Modulation of the spatial extent of the attentional focus in high-level volleyball players. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 10, 247-267.
Castiello, U., & Umiltà, C. (1990). Size of the attentional focus and efficiency of processing. Acta psychologica, 73, 195-209.
Chang, T.-Y., Little, D. R., & Yang, C.-T. (2016). Selective attention modulates the effect of target location probability on redundant signal processing. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 78(6), 1603-1624.
Chang, T.-Y., & Yang, C.-T. (2014). Individual differences in Zhong-Yong tendency and processing capacity. Frontiers in psychology, 5, 1316.
Davids, K., Williams, A. M., & Williams, J. G. (2005). Visual perception and action in sport: Routledge.
Denardi, R. A., Clavijo, F. A. R., Oliveira, T. A. C. d., Travassos, B., Tani, G., & Corrêa, U. C. (2017). The volleyball setter’s decision-making on attacking. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 17(4), 442-457.
Donders, F. C. (1969). On the speed of mental processes. Acta psychologica, 30, 412-431.
Ericsson, K. A., & Delaney, P. F. (1999). Long-term working memory as an alternative to capacity models of working memory in everyday skilled performance. Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control, 257–297.
Ericsson, K. A., Delaney, P. F., Weaver, G., & Mahadevan, R. (2004). Uncovering the structure of a memorist’s superior “basic” memory capacity. Cognitive Psychology, 49(3), 191-237.
Ericsson, K. A., & Kintsch, W. (1995). Long-term working memory. Psychological review, 102(2), 211.
Eriksen, C. W., & James, J. D. S. (1986). Visual attention within and around the field of focal attention: A zoom lens model. Perception & psychophysics, 40(4), 225-240.
Eriksen, C. W., & Yeh, Y.-y. (1985). Allocation of attention in the visual field. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 11(5), 583.
Formenti, D., Duca, M., Trecroci, A., Ansaldi, L., Bonfanti, L., Alberti, G., & Iodice, P. (2019). Perceptual vision training in non-sport-specific context: effect on performance skills and cognition in young females. Scientific reports, 9(1), 1-13.
Fortin-Guichard, D., Laflamme, V., Julien, A.-S., Trottier, C., & Grondin, S. (2020). Decision-making and dynamics of eye movements in volleyball experts. Scientific reports, 10(1), 1-14.
Fry, A. F., & Hale, S. (2000). Relationships among processing speed, working memory, and fluid intelligence in children. Biological Psychology, 54(1-3), 1-34.
Günay, A. R., Ceylan, H. I., Çolakoğolu, F. F., & Saygın, Ö. (2019). Comparison of Coinciding Anticipation Timing and Reaction Time Performances of Adolescent Female Volleyball Players in Different Playing Positions. The Sport Journal, 36, 1-12.
Gorman, J. C., Cooke, N. J., & Winner, J. L. (2006). Measuring team situation awareness in decentralized command and control environments. Ergonomics, 49(12-13), 1312-1325.
Grice, G. R., Canham, L., & Boroughs, J. M. (1984). Combination rule for redundant information in reaction time tasks with divided attention. Perception & psychophysics, 35(5), 451-463.
Grice, G. R., Canham, L., & Gwynne, J. W. (1984). Absence of a redundant-signals effect in a reaction time task with divided attention. Perception & psychophysics, 36(6), 565-570.
Hackman, D. A., & Farah, M. J. (2009). Socioeconomic status and the developing brain. Trends in cognitive sciences, 13(2), 65-73.
Handy, T. C., & Mangun, G. R. (2000). Attention and spatial selection: Electrophysiological evidence for modulation by perceptual load. Perception & psychophysics, 62(1), 175-186.
Henderson, J. M., & Macquistan, A. D. (1993). The spatial distribution of attention following an exogenous cue. Perception & psychophysics, 53(2), 221-230.
Huang, H.-C., & Wang, C.-H. (2016). Preliminary Approach of Factors Affecting Performance in Volleyball: The Role of Cognitives Function. Sports Research Review(137), 20-30.
Hughes, H. C., & Zimba, L. D. (1985). Spatial maps of directed visual attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 11(4), 409.
Hughes, H. C., & Zimba, L. D. (1987). Natural boundaries for the spatial spread of directed visual attention. Neuropsychologia, 25(1), 5-18.
Johnson, S. A., Blaha, L. M., Houpt, J. W., & Townsend, J. T. (2010). Systems factorial technology provides new insights on global–local information processing in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 54(1), 53-72.
Jonides, J. (1983). Further toward a model of the mind’s eye’s movement. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 21(4), 247-250.
LaBerge, D. (1983). Spatial extent of attention to letters and words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 9(3), 371.
Leger, L. A., & Lambert, J. (1982). A maximal multistage 20-m shuttle run test to predict $$dot V $$ O 2 max. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 49(1), 1-12.
Little, D., Altieri, N., Fific, M., & Yang, C.-T. (2017). Systems factorial technology: A theory driven methodology for the identification of perceptual and cognitive mechanisms: Academic Press.
Loffing, F., Stern, R., & Hagemann, N. (2015). Pattern-induced expectation bias in visual anticipation of action outcomes. Acta psychologica, 161, 45-53.
Mann, D. T., Williams, A. M., Ward, P., & Janelle, C. M. (2007). Perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport: A meta-analysis. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 29(4), 457-478.
Marteniuk, R. G. (1976). Information processing in motor skills: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Memmert, D., Simons, D. J., & Grimme, T. (2009). The relationship between visual attention and expertise in sports. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(1), 146-151.
Miller, J. (1982). Divided attention: Evidence for coactivation with redundant signals. Cognitive Psychology, 14(2), 247-279.
Miller, J. (1986). Timecourse of coactivation in bimodal divided attention. Perception & psychophysics, 40(5), 331-343.
Miller, J. (1991). Channel interaction and the redundant-targets effect in bimodal divided attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 17(1), 160.
Montuori, S., D'Aurizio, G., Foti, F., Liparoti, M., Lardone, A., Pesoli, M., . . . Sorrentino, P. (2019). Executive functioning profiles in elite volleyball athletes: Preliminary results by a sport-specific task switching protocol. Human Movement Science, 63, 73-81.
Nascimento Maciel, R., Morales, A. P., Barcelos, J. L., Nunes, W. J., Azevedo, M. M. d. A., & da Silva, V. F. (2009). Relation between reaction time and specific fundction in volleyball players. Fitness & Performance Journal (Online Edition), 8(6).
Navon, D. (1977). Forest before trees: The precedence of global features in visual perception. Cognitive Psychology, 9(3), 353-383.
Navon, D. (1981). The forest revisited: More on global precedence. Psychological research, 43(1), 1-32.
Nuri, L., Shadmehr, A., Ghotbi, N., & Attarbashi Moghadam, B. (2013). Reaction time and anticipatory skill of athletes in open and closed skill-dominated sport. European Journal of Sport Science, 13(5), 431-436.
Palao, J. M., Manzanares, P., & Valadés, D. (2014). Anthropometric, physical, and age differences by the player position and the performance level in volleyball. Journal of human kinetics, 44(1), 223-236.
Pesce, C., Tessitore, A., Casella, R., Pirritano, M., & Capranica, L. (2007). Focusing of visual attention at rest and during physical exercise in soccer players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25(11), 1259-1270.
Posner, M. I. (1980). Orienting of attention. Quarterly journal of experimental psychology, 32(1), 3-25.
Ranković, G., Mutavdžić, V., Toskić, D., Preljević, A., Kocić, M., Nedin-Ranković, G., & Damjanović, N. (2010). Aerobic capacity as an indicator in different kinds of sports. Bosnian journal of basic medical sciences, 10(1), 44.
Richardson, D., Reilly, T., Stratton, G., & Williams, A. M. (2004). Youth soccer: From science to performance: Routledge.
Roca, A., Ford, P. R., McRobert, A. P., & Williams, A. M. (2013). Perceptual-cognitive skills and their interaction as a function of task constraints in soccer. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 35(2), 144-155.
Scharfen, H. E., & Memmert, D. (2019). Measurement of cognitive functions in experts and elite athletes: A meta‐analytic review. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 33(5), 843-860.
Schutz, L. K. (1999). Volleyball. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics, 10(1), 19-34.
Sibley, B. A., & Etnier, J. L. (2004). Time course of attention and decision making during a volleyball set. Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 75(1), 102-106.
Sors, F., Murgia, M., Santoro, I., Prpic, V., Galmonte, A., & Agostini, T. (2017). The contribution of early auditory and visual information to the discrimination of shot power in ball sports. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 31, 44-51.
Starkes, J. L., & Allard, F. (1993). Cognitive issues in motor expertise: Elsevier.
Starkes, J. L., & Ericsson, K. A. (2003). Expert performance in sports: Advances in research on sport expertise: Human Kinetics.
Sternberg, S. (1969). Memory-scanning: Mental processes revealed by reaction-time experiments. American scientist, 57(4), 421-457.
Thomas, K. T., & Thomas, J. R. (1994). Developing expertise in sport: The relation of knowledge and performance. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 25, 295-295.
Townsend, J. T. (1990). Serial vs. parallel processing: Sometimes they look like Tweedledum and Tweedledee but they can (and should) be distinguished. Psychological Science, 1(1), 46-54.
Townsend, J. T. (2001). A clarification of self-terminating versus exhaustive variances in serial and parallel models. Perception & psychophysics, 63(6), 1101-1106.
Townsend, J. T., & Eidels, A. (2011). Workload capacity spaces: A unified methodology for response time measures of efficiency as workload is varied. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18(4), 659-681.
Townsend, J. T., & Nozawa, G. (1995). Spatio-temporal properties of elementary perception: An investigation of parallel, serial, and coactive theories. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 39(4), 321-359.
Townsend, J. T., & Thomas, R. D. (1994). Stochastic dependencies in parallel and serial models: Effects on systems factorial interactions. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 38(1), 1-34.
Ulrich, R., & Miller, J. (1997). Tests of race models for reaction time in experiments with asynchronous redundant signals. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 41(4), 367-381.
Von Eckardt, B. (1995). What is cognitive science? : MIT press.
Voss, M. W., Kramer, A. F., Basak, C., Prakash, R. S., & Roberts, B. (2010). Are expert athletes ‘expert’in the cognitive laboratory? A meta‐analytic review of cognition and sport expertise. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(6), 812-826.
Wang, C.-H., Liang, W.-K., & Moreau, D. (2020). Differential Modulation of Brain Signal Variability During Cognitive Control in Athletes with Different Domains of Expertise. Neuroscience, 425, 267-279.
Wang, C.-H., Lin, C.-C., Moreau, D., Yang, C.-T., & Liang, W.-K. (2020). Neural correlates of cognitive processing capacity in elite soccer players. Biological Psychology, 157, 107971.
Wang, C.-H., Yang, C.-T., Moreau, D., & Muggleton, N. G. (2017). Motor expertise modulates neural oscillations and temporal dynamics of cognitive control. Neuroimage, 158, 260-270.
Wenger, M. J., & Gibson, B. S. (2004). Using hazard functions to assess changes in processing capacity in an attentional cuing paradigm. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 30(4), 708.
Williams, A. M., Ford, P. R., Eccles, D. W., & Ward, P. (2011). Perceptual‐cognitive expertise in sport and its acquisition: Implications for applied cognitive psychology. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25(3), 432-442.
Williams, A. M., & Ward, P. (2003). Perceptual expertise. Expert performance in sport, 219-249.
Wright, D. L., Pleasants, F., & Gomez-Meza, M. (1990). Use of advanced visual cue sources in volleyball. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 12(4), 406-414.
Wylie, S. A., Bashore, T. R., Van Wouwe, N. C., Mason, E. J., John, K. D., Neimat, J. S., & Ally, B. A. (2018). Exposing an “Intangible” cognitive skill among collegiate football players: enhanced interference control. Frontiers in psychology, 9, 49.
Yang, C.-T. (2011). Relative saliency in change signals affects perceptual comparison and decision processes in change detection. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 37(6), 1708.
Yang, C.-T., Chang, T.-Y., & Wu, C.-J. (2013). Relative change probability affects the decision process of detecting multiple feature changes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 39(5), 1365.
Yu, J.-C., Chang, T.-Y., & Yang, C.-T. (2014). Individual differences in working memory capacity and workload capacity. Frontiers in psychology, 5, 1465.
Zhang, X., Yan, M., & Yangang, L. (2009). Differential performance of Chinese volleyball athletes and nonathletes on a multiple-object tracking task. Perceptual and motor skills, 109(3), 747-756.
Zhao, H. J. N. (2018). Sports Situation-Based Neural Mechanism of High-level Volleyball Players' Decision-making Behavior. NeuroQuantolog, 16(6).
Zoudji, B., & Thon, B. (2003). Expertise and implicit memory: Differential repetition priming effects on decision making in experienced and inexperienced soccer players. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 34(3), 189-207.