隨著人們居處於室內的時間比例增加，室內空氣品質 (indoor air quality, IAQ) 的重要性也與日俱增。最新研究報告指出，高溫會導致空氣中細懸浮微粒 (PM2.5) 尖峰值 (peak level) 增加，而大氣污染物濃度上升恐導致IAQ下降進而增加室內人員之健康風險；另一方面，面對大環境逐漸攀升的高溫，室內人員行為的改變是否會加劇IAQ之惡化尚待釐清。本研究將以具高健康風險之PM2.5為例，嘗試探討溫度的變化對於室內PM2.5濃度之影響，並釐清室內人員行為在此過程中扮演之角色，用以提出可降低室內人員暴露之調適策略。
　　本研究分為兩個階段，首先是住宅長期室內環境追蹤調查，研究選取臺北、臺中、臺南、花蓮四縣市內各兩棟作為追蹤之家戶建築（總數八棟），每間家戶分別進行至少4次、最多10次的室內外PM2.5濃度監測數值與室內/大氣溫度資料，亦針對可能影響室內外PM2.5濃度之因素做詳細記錄，包含建築物特性（樓層高度、建材主要結構、體積等）和人員行為（是否使用空調、電扇與門窗開啟情形）等，後以廣義估計方程式 (Generalized estimation equation, GEE) 分析溫度變化下影響室內PM2.5濃度之重要因素為何，並評估不同室內人員行為對室內PM2.5濃度的影響程度。在八間住宅內確認不同人員行為與室內外PM2.5 (indoor-outdoor ratio, I/O ratio) 之關係後，進一步在第二階段進行兩次實場的介入實驗，評估減少人員行為是否可降低人員暴露PM2.5之程度，第一次評估分別進行背景值及介入各一週的量測，第二次評估則是選擇具相同外氣引入口的兩空間，同時比較在相同溫度下進行24小時的量測；介入設定皆為要求室內人員減少開窗、使用電扇及空調之頻率。
　　結果顯示，室內與大氣溫度皆會顯著影響人員開電扇與開空調之行為頻率，家戶成員會在室內與大氣溫度分別達到28°C或29°C時開啟電扇或空調。受溫度影響進而人員行為頻率發生改變亦直接影響住宅中的PM2.5 I/O ratio；相較於同時關閉窗戶、電扇與空調者，開啟窗戶、電扇或空調分別可使I/O ratio上升0.24、0.29與0.41個單位，而同時開啟電扇、空調或同時開啟窗戶、電扇者分別可使I/O ratio上升0.47與0.48個單位。進一步透過人員行為頻率改變的介入研究來降低PM2.5 I/O ratio暴露情形，顯示每少開一小時窗戶或電扇可降低I/O ratio約0.23與0.07個單位。
　　本研究確認人員行為與PM2.5 I/O ratio之間的關係，並證實透過減少人員行為來降低PM2.5濃度暴露的可能性。相較於傳統使用濾網或空氣清淨機之改善措施，本研究提出透過主動改變人員行為頻率以降低家戶成員暴露程度的調適措施，係為一低成本且施行容易的選擇。

SUMMARY
Impacts of global warming on not only temperature but also air pollutants and human behaviors are more evident in recent years. This study aims to examine the effect of changing climate, in terms of increasing temperature, on indoor PM2.5 profiles. To what extent the changes of occupants’ behaviors resulted from temperature variations involved in the above mentioned association was further determined and quantified. Based on the changing behaviors found to be effective in reducing the indoor PM2.5 exposure, the adaptive strategies could be formulated for residents to refrain themselves from higher PM2.5 exposure under the impact of global warming. Samplings were conducted at 8 households, and at least 4 to 10 times at each home during the study periods. Indoor/outdoor PM2.5 concentration, temperature, building characteristics and occupants’ behaviors were investigated. Occupants’ behaviors were found to affect PM2.5 I/O ratio. The intervention experiments found that lower PM2.5 I/O ratio level were achieved if the frequency of occupants’ behaviors were decreased. In conclusion, the results further characterize the relationship between temperatures, occupants’ behaviors and PM2.5 concentration. An adaptive strategy which could reduce the indoor exposure levels of PM2.5 for occupants under the impact of global warming is suggested.
INTRODUCTION
Indoor air quality (IAQ) has become more critical while the time people spend indoors is increasing along with global warming. Rising temperatures in polluted regions are associated with increasing peak levels of O3 and PM2.5. Higher ambient air pollutants lead to poor IAQ and are hazardous to human health. This study aims to examine the effect of changing climate, particularly increasing temperature, on the indoor PM2.5 profile, and further to determine the role of occupants’ behaviors and the consequences of temperature changes involved in the association.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study can be divided into two phases. First, 8 homes, in which Taiwan people averagely spend about 90% of their daily time, were selected from 4 major cities of Taiwan. All of them are located within 6 km from the local meteorological stations. The long-term investigation of IAQ profile for at least 4 to 10 times of each home was conducted. Real-time monitors for PM2.5 (TSI Dust-Trak IAQ Monitor Model 8533, 8530) were set at the rooms where occupants spent most of their time when inside the house and the entrance of fresh air to the room. The indoor and ambient temperature was recorded by the HOBO logger (#U10-003) and acquired from Taiwan Central Weather Bureau, respectively. Occupants’ behaviors and building characteristics were recorded by questionnaires. Generalized estimation equation (GEE) was applied to estimate the effect of occupants’ behaviors on indoor PM2.5 concentration. In the second phase, two intervention experiments were conducted to examine whether the level of PM2.5 I/O ratio can be reduced by decreasing the frequency of occupants’ behaviors. The first intervention involves one week of background measurement, and another week of intervening measurement. The second intervention selected two spaces (one control, one intervening room) with the same entrance point of fresh air and collected samples for 24 hours. The occupants were asked to reduce their frequency of behaviors, including opening windows, turning on AC or fans during both intervention periods.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Occupants will start turning on AC or fan when indoor or ambient temperature reach 28°C and 29°C (Figure 1), respectively. With 1°C increase of the ambient/indoor temperature, the probability of turning on AC or fan was higher than the turning off by about 1.31, 1.45, 1.89 and 2.19 times, respectively (Table 1). PM2.5 I/O ratio was also influenced by both indoor and ambient temperature. With 1°C increase of the ambient and indoor temperature, PM2.5 I/O ratio was rising by 0.22 (β= 0.22) and 0.32 (β= 0.32), respectively. The PM2.5 I/O varied with the temperature levels. Comparing to the reference scenario (Table 2), I/O ratio for opening windows, turning on fans or AC were significantly higher by 0.24, 0.29 or 0.41 times, respectively. When turning on AC and fan concurrently, the ratio was 0.47 times higher than that during the reference scenario while opening windows and turning on fans concurrently was 0.48 times higher. The lowest level of I/O ratio was found when windows being closed, AC and fans being turned off. It is suggested that indoor particles could be disturbed and suspended in air while AC/fan is turned on. During intervention period, changing the frequency of human behaviors, influenced by the temperature, can reduce the level of I/O ratio about 0.2 to 5.8%. Based on the finding in the second intervention experiment, closing window or turning off fan can reduce I/O ratio about 16.3% and 3.6%, respectively, on the hourly base. (Table 3).
CONCLUSION
Human behaviors, including opening window, turning on fan or AC, may affect the relationship between indoor and outdoor PM2.5 concentration. Increase of every 1°C of ambient and indoor temperature, the probability of turning on fan or AC are about 1.26 to 2.19 times higher, compared to the turning off. Increasing frequency of occupants’ behaviors is found in order to maintain a relatively comfortable indoor thermal environment when ambient temperature is rising. However, higher PM2.5 I/O ratio was observed when these behaviors were present. Opening windows, turning on fan or AC, may increase I/O ratio by 0.24, 0.29 and 0.41 times, respectively. On the other hand, by closing window or turning off fan, I/O ratio was lower by 16.3% and 3.6%, respectively, on the hourly base. . A relatively cheap and accessible method to reduce the exposure of PM2.5 by changing the frequency of occupants’ behaviors is proposed based on study resutls.

A European interdisciplinary review of scientific evidence on associations between exposure to particles in buildings and health effects. Indoor Air. 156(2), 223-44
Amato F., Rivas I., Viana M., et al. 2014. Sources of indoor and outdoor PM2.5 concentrations in primary schools. Sci Total Environ, (490), 757-65.
Anderson J. O., Thundiyil J. G., and Stolbach A. 2012. Clearing the air: a review of the effects of particulate matter air pollution on human health. J Med Toxicol, 8(2), 166-75.
Arku R. E., Dionisio K. L., Hughes A. F., et al. 2015. Personal particulate matter exposures and locations of students in four neighborhoods in Accra, Ghana. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 25(6), 557-66.
Atkinson R. W., Kang S., Anderson H. R., et al. 2014. Epidemiological time series studies of PM2.5 and daily mortality and hospital admissions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Thorax, 69(7), 660-5.
Aydogdu H., and Asan A. 2008. Airborne fungi in child day care centers in Edirne City, Turkey. Environ Monit Assess, 147(1-3), 423-44.
Aydogdu H., Asan A., and Tatman Otkun M. 2010. Indoor and outdoor airborne bacteria in child day-care centers in Edirne City (Turkey), seasonal distribution and influence of meteorological factors. Environ Monit Assess, 164(1-4), 53-66.
Aydogdu H., and Asan A. 2013. Airborne fungi in child day care centers in Edirne City, Turkey. Environ Monit Assess, 147(1-3), 423-44.
Baek S.O., Kim Y.-S., and Perry, R. 1997. Indoor Air Quality In Homes, Offices and Restaurants in Korean Urban Areas--Indoor:Outdoor Relationships. Atmos Environ 43(1), 251-263. .
Batterman S., Du L., Mentz G., et al. 2012. Particulate matter concentrations in residences: an intervention study evaluating stand-alone filters and air conditioners. Indoor Air, 22(3), 235-52.
Batterman S., Du L., Parker E., et al. 2013. Use of Free-standing Filters in an Asthma Intervention Study. Air Qual Atmos Health, 6(4), 759-767.
Bekö G., Gustavsen S., Frederiksen M., et al. 2016. Diurnal and seasonal variation in air exchange rates and interzonal airflows measured by active and passive tracer gas in homes. Build Environ, 104, 178-187.
Bell M. L., Ebisu K., Peng R. D., et al. 2009. Adverse health effects of particulate air pollution: modification by air conditioning. Epidemiology, 20(5), 682-6.
Blair S. L., Epstein S. A., Nizkorodov S. A., et al. 2015. A Real-Time Fast-Flow Tube Study of VOC and Particulate Emissions from Electronic, Potentially Reduced-Harm, Conventional, and Reference Cigarettes. Aerosol Sci Technol, 49(9), 816-827.
Breen M. S., Burke J. M., Batterman S. A., et al. 2014. Modeling spatial and temporal variability of residential air exchange rates for the Near-Road Exposures and Effects of Urban Air Pollutants Study. Environ Res Publ Health., 11(11), 481-504.
Breysse P. N., Buckley T. J., Williams D., et al. 2005. Indoor exposures to air pollutants and allergens in the homes of asthmatic children in inner-city Baltimore. Environ Res, 98(2), 167-76.
Brook R. D., Rajagopalan S., Pope C. A., 3rd, et al. 2010. Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease: An update to the scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 121(21), 2331-78.
Canha N., Mandin C., Ramalho O., et al. 2016. Assessment of ventilation and indoor air pollutants in nursery and elementary schools in France. Indoor Air, 26(3), 350-65.
Chafe Z. A., Brauer M., Klimont Z., et al. 2014. Household cooking with solid fuels contributes to ambient PM2.5 air pollution and the burden of disease. Environ Health Perspect, 122(12), 1314-20.
Chi M. C., Guo S. E., Hwang S. L., et al. 2016. Exposure to Indoor Particulate Matter Worsens the Symptoms and Acute Exacerbations in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Patients of Southwestern Taiwan: A Pilot Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 14(1).
Chuang K. J., Chuang H. C., and Lin L. Y. 2013. Indoor air pollution, nighttime heart rate variability and coffee consumption among convenient store workers. PLoS One, 8(8).
Chan A. T. 2002. indoor-outdoor relationships of particulate matter and nitrogen oxides under different outdoor meteorological conditions. Atmos Environ, 36, 1543-1551.
Chen A., Gall E. T., and Chang V. W. 2016a. Indoor and outdoor particulate matter in primary school classrooms with fan-assisted natural ventilation in Singapore. Environ. Res. , 23(17), 17613-24.
Chen S. Y., Wu C. F., Lee J. H., et al. 2015. Associations between Long-Term Air Pollutant Exposures and Blood Pressure in Elderly Residents of Taipei City: A Cross-Sectional Study. Environ Health Perspect, 123(8), 779-84.
Chen Z., Chen C., Wei S., et al. 2016b. Impact of the external window crack structure on indoor PM2.5 mass concentration. Build Environ, 108(2), 240-251.
Christoph E., 2014, Lost life expectancy due to air pollution in China.
Confalonieri U., Menne B., Akhtar R., et al. 2007. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. UK: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Cyrys J., Heinrich J., Hoek G., et al. 2003. Comparison between different traffic-related particle indicators: elemental carbon (EC), Buil mass, and absorbance. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol, 13(2), 134-43.
D’Amato G., Baena-Cagnani C. E., Cecchi L., et al. 2013. Climate change, air pollution and extreme events leading to increasing prevalence of allergic respiratory diseases. Multidiscip Resp Med , 14(1), 234-43.
Daiseya J. M., Hodgson T., Fisk W. J., et al. 1994. Volatile Organic Compounds In Twelve California Office Buildings- Classes, Concentrations And Sources. Atmos. Environ.
Dorizas P. V., Assimakopoulos M. N., Helmis C., et al. 2015. An integrated evaluation study of the ventilation rate, the exposure and the indoor air quality in naturally ventilated classrooms in the Mediterranean region during spring. Sci Total Environ, 502(2), 557-70.
Du L., Batterman S., Godwin C., et al. 2012. Air change rates and interzonal flows in residences, and the need for multi-zone models for exposure and health analyses. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 9(12), 4639-61.
Fang Y., Mauzerall D. L., Liu J., et al. 2013. Impacts of 21st century climate change on global air pollution-related premature mortality. Climatic Change, 121(2), 239-253.
Fann N., Lamson A. D., Anenberg S. C., et al. 2012. Estimating the national public health burden associated with exposure to ambient PM2.5 and ozone. Risk Anal, 32(1), 81-95.
Ferrero A., Esplugues A., Estarlich M., et al. 2017. Infants' indoor and outdoor residential exposure to benzene and respiratory health in a Spanish cohort. Environ Pollut, 222, 486-494.
Fiore A. M., Naik V., and Leibensperger E. M. 2015. Air quality and climate connections. J Air Waste Manag Assoc, 65(6), 645-85.
Gefenaite G., Rahamat-Langendoen J., Ambrozaitis A., et al. 2014. Seasonal influenza vaccine effectiveness against influenza in 2012-2013: a hospital-based case-control study in Lithuania. Vaccine, 32(7), 857-63.
Geng F., Hua J., Mu Z., et al. 2013. Differentiating the associations of black carbon and fine particle with daily mortality in a Chinese city. Environ Res, 120, 27-32.
Giulio M.D., Grande R. D., Campli E., et al. 2010. Indoor air quality in university environments. Environ Monit Assess, 170(1-4), 509-1
Gong, L. S. 2002. Canadian Aerosol Module (CAM): A size-segregated simulation of atmospheric aerosol processes for climate and air quality models 2. Global sea-salt aerosol and its budgets. Geophysics, 107(D24).
Hammond D., Croghan C., Shin H., et al. 2014. Cardiovascular impacts and micro-environmental exposure factors associated with continuous personal PM2.5 monitoring. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 24(4), 337-45.
Han Y., and Zhu T. 2015. Health effects of fine particles (PM2.5) in ambient air. Sci China Life Sci, 58(6), 624-6.
Hanley J. A., Negassa A., Edwardes M. D. B., et al. 2003. Statistical Analysis of Correlated Data Using Generalized Estimating Equations- An Orientation. Am J Epidemiol, 157(4).
Hardin J. W., 2005, Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE)
Harlan S. L., and Ruddell D. M. 2011. Climate change and health in cities: impacts of heat and air pollution and potential co-benefits from mitigation and adaptation. Environ Int, 3(3), 126-134.
Hauke J., and Kossowski T. 2011. Comparison of values of Pearson’s and Spearman’s correlation coefficients on the same sets of data. Quaest Geogr, 30(2)
Heudorf U., Neitzert V., and Spark J. 2009. Particulate matter and carbon dioxide in classrooms - the impact of cleaning and ventilation. Int J Hyg Environ Health, 212(1), 45-55.
Hodas N., Loh M., Shin H. M., et al. 2016. Indoor inhalation intake fractions of fine particulate matter: review of influencing factors. Indoor Air, 26(6), 836-856.
Huang Y. L., Chen H. W., Han B. C., et al. 2014. Personal exposure to household particulate matter, household activities and heart rate variability among housewives. PLoS One, 9(3).
Hussein T., Glytsos T., Ondráček J., et al. 2006. Particle size characterization and emission rates during indoor activities in a house. Atmos Environ, 40(23), 4285-4307.
Hussein T., Hämeri K., Heikkinen M. S. A., et al. 2005. Indoor and outdoor particle size characterization at a family house in Espoo–Finland. Atmos Environ, 39(20), 3697-3709.
Hwang B. F., Chen Y. H., Lin Y. T., et al. 2015. Relationship between exposure to fine particulates and ozone and reduced lung function in children. Environ Res, (137)382-390.
Hyland A., Travers M., Dresler C., et al. 2008. A 32-county comparison of tobacco smoke derived particle levels in indoor public places. Tobacco Control, (17)159-165.
Ilacqua V., Dawson J., Breen M., et al. 2015. Effects of climate change on residential infiltration and air pollution exposure. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol.
IPCC. 2013. Climate Change 2013.
IPCC. 2014. Climate Change 2014.
Jacob D. J., and Winner D. A. 2009. Effect of climate change on air quality. Atmos Environ, 43(1), 51-63.
Janssen N., Schwartz J., Zanobetti A., et al. 2002. Air Conditioning and Source-Specific Particles as Modifiers of the Effect of PM10 on Hospital Admissions for Heart and Lung Disease. Environ. Health Perspect. , 110(0), 44-50.
Jetter J. J., Guo Z., McBrian J. A., et al. 2002. Characterization of emissions from burning incense. Sci Total Environ, 295(51-67).
Kabir E., Kim K. H., Sohn J. R., et al. 2012. Indoor air quality assessment in child care and medical facilities in Korea. Environ Monit Assess, 184(10), 6395-409.
Kan H., Chen R., and Tong S. 2012. Ambient air pollution, climate change, and population health in China. Environ Int, 42(10-9.
Kinibbs L. D., Richard J. D., and Morawska L. 2010. Effect of Cabin Ventilation Rate on Ultrafine Particle Exposure Inside Automobiles. Environ. Sci. Technol., 44(9), 3546-3551.
Klepies N. E., Nelson W. C., and Ott W. R., 2013, A Resource for Assessing Exposure to Environmental Pollutants.
Kuo S.-C., Tsai Y. I., and Sopajaree K. 2016. Emission characteristics of carboxylates in PM2.5 from incense burning with the effect of light on acetate. Atmos Environ, (138), 125-134.
Lai A.C.K. 2004. Particle deposition indoors: a review Indoor Air.
Lanzinger S., Schneider A., Breitner S., et al. 2016. Associations between ultrafine and fine particles and mortality in five central European cities - Results from the UFIREG study. Environ Int, 88, 44-52.
Lee C. W., and Hsu D. J. 2007. Measurements of fine and ultrafine particles formation in photocopy centers in Taiwan. Atmos Environ, 41(31), 6598-6609.
Leiva G. M., Santibanez D. A., Ibarra E. S., et al. 2013. A five-year study of particulate matter (PM2.5) and cerebrovascular diseases. Environ Pollut, 181(1-6.)
Li Y., Ma Z., Zheng C., et al. 2015. Ambient temperature enhanced acute cardiovascular-respiratory mortality effects of PM2.5 in Beijing, China. Int J Biometeorol, 59(12), 1761-70.
Lim S., Lee K., Seo S., et al. 2011. Impact of regulation on indoor volatile organic compounds in new unoccupied apartment in Korea. Atmos Environ, 45(11), 1994-2000.
Lim S., Lee K., Seo S., et al. 2011. Impact of regulation on indoor volatile organic compounds in new unoccupied apartment in Korea. Atmos Environ, 45(11), 1994-2000.
Lu C. Y., Kang S. Y., Liu S. H., et al. 2016. Controlling Indoor Air Pollution from Moxibustion. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 13(6)
Ma Y. T., Jiang Y. Q., and Li L. 2015. Numerical Simulation of PM2.5 Distribution in Indoor Air. Procedia Eng., 121(0), 1939-1947.
.
Madureira J., Paciencia I., Pereira C., et al. 2016. Indoor air quality in Portuguese schools: levels and sources of pollutants. Indoor Air, 26(4), 526-37.
Mavrogianni A., Wilkinson P., Davies M., et al. 2012. Building characteristics as determinants of propensity to high indoor summer temperatures in London dwellings. Build Environ, 55, 117-130.
McCormack M. C., Belli A. J., Kaji D. A., et al. 2015. Obesity as a susceptibility factor to indoor particulate matter health effects in COPD. Eur Respir J, 45(5), 1248-57.
Meng Q. Y., Turpin B. J., Korn L., et al. 2005. Influence of ambient (outdoor) sources on residential indoor and personal PM2.5 concentrations: analyses of RIOPA data. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol, 15(1), 17-28.
Mirakhorli A., and Dong B. 2016. Occupancy behavior based model predictive control for building indoor climate—A critical review. Energy and Buildings, 129, 499-513.
Moon K. W., Huh E. H., and Jeong H. C. 2014. Seasonal evaluation of bioaerosols from indoor air of residential apartments within the metropolitan area in South Korea. Environ Monit Assess, 186(4), 2111-20
Morey P., Rand T., and Phoenix T. 2009. On the penetration of mold into the fiberboard used in HVAC ductwork. Healthy Buildings, page 4. Syracuse, NY.
Muindi K., Murage E. K., Egondi T., et al. 2016. Household Air Pollution: Sources and Exposure Levels to Fine Particulate Matter in Nairobi Slums. Toxics., 4(12).
NASA Global Climate Change. http://climate.nasa.gov/
Norback D. 1995. SubjectiveIndoorAir QualityinSchools-the Influence of High Room Temperature, Carpeting, FleecyWallMaterialsandVolatile Organic Compounds (VOC). Indoor Air.
Nadal M., Marques M., Mari M., et al. 2015. Climate change and environmental concentrations of POPs: A review. Environ Res, 143(Pt A), 177-85.
Nazaroff W. W. 2004. Indoor particle dynamics. Indoor Air, 14,175-183.
Nurmatov U. B., Tagiyeva N., Semple S., et al. 2015. Volatile organic compounds and risk of asthma and allergy: a systematic review. Eur Respir Rev, 24(135), 92-101.
Orch E. Z., Stephens B., and Waring M. S. 2014. Predictions and determinants of size-resolved particle infiltration factors in single-family homes in the U.S. Build Environ., 74(106-118).
Perrino C., Tofful L., and Canepari S. 2016. Chemical characterization of indoor and outdoor fine particulate matter in an occupied apartment in Rome, Italy. Indoor Air, 26(4), 558-70.
Perry R., and Gee I. L. 1994. Vehicle Emissions and Effects on Air Quality- Indoors and Outdoors. Indoor Environ, S.
Phillips M. J., Smith E. A., Mosquin P. L., et al. 2016. Sri Lanka Pilot Study to Examine Respiratory Health Effects and Personal PM2.5 Exposures from Cooking Indoors. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 13(8).
Pope C. A., 3rd, Burnett R. T., Turner M. C., et al. 2011. Lung cancer and cardiovascular disease mortality associated with ambient air pollution and cigarette smoke: shape of the exposure-response relationships. Environ Health Perspect, 119(11), 1616-21.
Qian H., Zheng X., Zhang M., et al. 2016. Associations between Parents' Perceived Air Quality in Homes and Health among Children in Nanjing, China. PLoS One, 11(5), 0155742.
Ren H., Wang X., Zhao J., et al. 2010. Investigation of indoor formaldehyde in residential apartments in Beijing. IEEE.
Rosner R., and Grove D. 1999. Use of the mann-whitney U test for clustered data. Stat Med., 18 26(4), 526-37.
Ruxton G. D. 2006. The unequal variance t-test is an underused alternative to Student’s t-test and the Mann–Whitney U test. Behav. ecol.
Samet J. 1990. Environmental Controls and Lung-Disease - Report of the Ats Workshop on Environmental Controls and Lung-Disease, Santa-Fe, New-Mexico, March 24-26, 1988. Am Rev Respir Dis., 142(4), 915-939.
Schneider T., Sundell J., Bischof W., et al. 2003. ‘EUROPART’. Airborne particles in the indoor environment.
Sena A., Corvalan C., and Ebi K., 2014, Climate Change, Extreme Weather and Climate Events, and Health Impacts, 605-613.
Shaltout A. A. 2013. Elemental Composition of PM2.5 Particles Sampled in Industrial and Residential Areas of Taif, Saudi Arabia. Aerosol Air Qual Res.
Silva R. A., West J. J., Zhang Y., et al. 2013. Global premature mortality due to anthropogenic outdoor air pollution and the contribution of past climate change. Environ Res Lett, 8(3), 034005.
Soebarto V., and Bennetts H. 2014. Thermal comfort and occupant responses during summer in a low to middle income housing development in South Australia. Build Environ., 75(19-29).
Spilak M. P., Karottki G. D., Kolarik B., et al. 2014. Evaluation of building characteristics in 27 dwellings in Denmark and the effect of using particle filtration units on PM2.5 concentrations. Build Environ, 73(55-63.
Stephens B., and Siegel J. A. 2012. Penetration of ambient submicron particles into single-family residences and associations with building characteristics. Indoor Air, 22(6), 501-13.
Song G. S., Lim J. H., and Ahn T. K. 2012. Air conditioner operation behaviour based on students' skin temperature in a classroom. Appl Ergon, 43(1), 211-6.
Tai A. P. K., Mickley L. J., Jacob D. J., et al. 2012. Meteorological modes of variability for fine particulate matter PM2.5 air quality in the United States: implications for PM2.5 sensitivity to climate change. Atmos Chem Phys, 12(6), 3131-3145.
Taylor J., Shrubsole C., Davies M., et al. 2014. The modifying effect of the building envelope on population exposure to PM2.5 from outdoor sources. Indoor Air, 24(6), 639-51.
TCCIP, 臺灣年平均溫度未來推估時序變化.

Thatchera T.L., A.C.K.Lai, R.Jacksona, et al. 2002. Effects of room furnishings and air speed on particle deposition rates indoors. Atmos. Environ., (3), 1811-1819.
Torres D. A., Perez-Maldonado I. N., Jasso-Pineda Y., et al. 2008. Indoor air pollution in a Mexican indigenous community: Evaluation of risk reduction program using biomarkers, of exposure and effect. Sci Total Environ, 390(2-3), 362-368..
US EPA.2015. Particulate Matter (PM2.5) Trends.
Wang F., Meng D., Li X., et al. 2016. Indoor-outdoor relationships of PM2.5 in four residential dwellings in winter in the Yangtze River Delta, China. Environ Pollut, 215(280-9.
Wang J., Hu Z., Chen Y., et al. 2013. Contamination characteristics and possible sources of PM10 and PM2.5 in different functional areas of Shanghai, China. Atmos Environ, 68(221-229.
Wang X. H., Bi X. H., Sheng G. Y., et al. 2006. Hospital indoor PM10/PM2.5 and associated trace elements in Guangzhou, China. Sci Total Environ, 336(0), 124-135.
Wei S. S., Lu Y., and Wu W. T. 2015. Simulation of Particles Diffusion Characteristics in the Ventilation Duct of the Air Conditioning System. Procedia Eng., 121(0), 232-239.
Weitzman M., Yusufali A. H., Bali F., et al. 2016. Effects of hookah smoking on indoor air quality in homes. Tob Control.
WHO. 2005. WHO Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
WHO. 2012. World Health Statistics 2012.
WHO. 2013. World Health Statistics 2013.
WHO. 2016. World Health Statistics 2016.
Wong C. M., Tsang H., Lai H. K., et al. 2016. Cancer Mortality Risks from Long-term Exposure to Ambient Fine Particle. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev, 25(5), 839-45.
Ye X., Wolff R., Yu W., et al. 2012. Ambient temperature and morbidity: a review of epidemiological evidence. Environ Health Perspect, 120(1), 19-28.
Zhang Y., Ji X., Ku T., et al. 2016. Heavy metals bound to fine particulate matter from northern China induce season-dependent health risks: A study based on myocardial toxicity. Environ Pollut, 216(380-90.
Zhao J., Gao Z., Tian Z., et al. 2013. The biological effects of individual-level PM(2.5) exposure on systemic immunity and inflammatory response in traffic policemen. Occup Environ Med, 70(6), 426-31.
Zhou Z., Liu Y., Yuan J., et al. 2016. Indoor PM2.5 concentrations in residential buildings during a severely polluted winter: A case study in Tianjin, China. Renew Sust Energ Rev, 64,372-381.
Zhuang X., and Wu C. 2014. Saving energy when using air conditioners in offices—Behavioral pattern and design indications. Energ Buildings, 76, 661-668.
Zwozdziak A., Sowka I., Worobiec A., et al. 2014. The contribution of outdoor particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, PM10) to school indoor environment. Indoor Built Environ 24(8), 1038-1047.
內政部營建署, 2015, 營建年報.
臺灣電力公司. 2014. 近十年國人平均用電量統計.
經濟部能源局, 2015, 非生產性質行業能源查核年報.
衛生福利部, 2015, 國人死因統計結果.
蘇慧貞, 2002, 「室內/室外空氣污染物之國民健康風險評估及管制成本效益分析」，行政院環保署專題委託研究計劃-國立成功大學環境醫學研究所
交通部公路總局. 2015. 臺灣地區公路交通量調查.
經濟部能源局, 2013, 臺灣地區各類用電器具之電力調查.