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研究生：	周麗嫺 Chou, Li-Hsien
論文名稱：	在1-乙基-3 -甲基-咪唑四氟硼酸離子液體中利用電沉積製備銅銦、鈀銅，鈀錫合金 Eleectrodeposiotion of Cu-In, PdCu, PdSn alloys from 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium Chloride tetrafluoroborate ionic liquid
指導教授：	孫亦文 Sun, I-Wen 黃守仁 Whang, Thou-Jen
學位類別：	博士 Doctor
系所名稱：	理學院 - 化學系 Department of Chemistry
論文出版年：	2011
畢業學年度：	99
語文別：	英文
論文頁數：	123
中文關鍵詞：	EMI-Cl-BF4離子液體、銅銦合金、半導體硒、鈀銅合金、鈀錫合金、乙醇催化、ITO電極
外文關鍵詞：	1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium Chloride tetrafluoroborate ionic liquid (EMI-Cl-BF4), Cu-In alloy, Se element, Pd-Cu alloy, Pd-Sn alloy, Electro-oxidation ethanol, Indium tin oxide conductivity glass (ITO)
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本論文，包含兩部分: (1)在離子液體中利用電化學方法電鍍銅銦合金與半導體硒元素
(2)在離子液體中利用電化學方法電鍍以鈀為主的合金應用在乙醇
催化中
第一部分: 本論文，利用1-乙基-3 -甲基-咪唑四氟硼酸室溫離子液體當成電鍍液，電鍍銅銦合金與半導體硒;由於銅離子與銦離子的還原電位在水溶液中，是相差很大的，但在離子液體中，卻是相當接近，因此銅銦合金可以輕易的被共沉積出來。由結果得知，銅銦合金的比例，會因銅離子與銦離子的比例而有所改變，當銅離子的濃度越大，銅銦合金裡面的銦含量將會變少，且銦的還原電位將會往負的方向移動。相對的，若銅離子的濃度小於銦離子的濃度，則很容易可以得到銅銦含量比1:1的銅銦合金，並且此時，銅銦含量比，不會因為施加電位改變而產生變化。
對於電鍍半導體硒，本實驗利用氧化硒溶在室溫離子液體裡電鍍出半導體硒元素，由CV可以了解，四價硒(Se4+)將會被還原成二價Se2+，在施予更高的負電壓又再繼續被還原成半導體Se元素，最後再被還原成硒負二價(Se2-)離子，利用XRD鑑定出硒元素是以t-Se的晶形存在。
第二部分: 本論文在室溫離子液體中電鍍出以鈀為主的合金，鈀銅合金與鈀錫合金電鍍在玻璃基材上摻雜銦錫氧化物的導電玻璃(ITO)，溫度控制在1200C。對於鈀銅合金的部分，由CV的數據可以得知，鈀的還原電位較正於銅的還原電位，但鈀的功函數大於銅的功函數，因此銅可以在鈀膜上，提前還原，也就是UPD的現象，且銅離子加入，將會使得鈀的還原電位往負的地方移動，而更靠近銅的還原電位峰，因此鈀銅可以被共沉積形成合金。再者，在UPD的電位下電鍍鈀銅合金，經由XRD鑑定可以得到固熔狀態的鈀銅合金，在較負的地方電鍍，可以得到銅含量較多的鈀銅合金。鈀銅合金薄膜在ITO基材有非常好的附著力，因此可用於催化乙醇，且也具有相當好的催化性質。
對於鈀錫合金，錫二價離子(Sn2+)將會還原鈀二價離子(Pd2+)，產生鈀奈米粒子沉澱以及自身氧化成錫四價離子(Sn4+)在1-乙基-3 -甲基-咪唑四氟硼酸離子液體溶液裡，因此研究是利用錫四價離子(Sn2+)與鈀二價離子(Pd2+)電鍍鈀錫合金薄膜。鈀錫合金薄膜的組成比例，不僅與還原電位有關係，同時也受到EMIC-BF4溶液中鈀二價離子(Pd2+)與錫四價離子(Sn2+)的濃度比例決定。藉由XRD鑑定，本實驗可以得到以鈀含量較多的固熔的鈀錫合金與錫含量較多的鈀錫合金，且SEM影像顯示出，鈀含量較多的固熔鈀錫合金呈現圓滑顆粒狀，然而錫含量較多的鈀錫合金呈現菱角塊狀。進一步，本實驗利用鈀錫合金薄膜做為乙醇氧化的催化材料，發現有著比純鈀薄膜更好的催化乙醇氧化能力。

The dissertation includes two parts : (1) Electrodeposition of Cu-In alloy and Se element in 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium Chloride tetrafluoroborate ionic liquid (EMI-Cl-BF4) on Induim Tin Oxide glass Electrodes (ITO) and (2) Electrodepostion of Pd-base alloy in 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium Chloride tetrafluoroborate ionic liquid (EMI-Cl-BF4) for Ehtnaol electro-oxidation.
Fristly, in this study, the EMI-Cl-BF4 was as electrodeposite solution for electrodeposition of Cu-In alloy and Se element. As has been mentioned, the redox potential of Cu(I)/Cu couple (-0.05 V vs. Ag/AgCl) and In(III)/In couple (-0.8 V vs. Ag/AgCl) in aqueous solutions are very different, but in EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid, their reduciotn potential are so close that codeposited Cu-In alloy easily. For these results, the composition of Cu-In alloy is charged by the concentration ratios of Cu(II) and In(III) in EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid. When the concentration of Cu(II) is much more, the reduction potential of In(III) is shifted the more negative and hard to reach the same ratio content for Cu-In alloy. On the other hand, the concentario of In(III) is more than Cu(II), it is easy to obtain the same ratio composition of Cu-In alloy. Samples of Cu-In electrodeposits were prepared with potentiostatic electrolysis and characterized with SEM, EDS and XRD techniques. The composition of the Cu-In electrodeposits is almost independent on the deposition potential except for in the more negative potential.
Electrodeposition of the selenium film in 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride-tetrafluoroborate ionic liquid containing excess chloride ions on indium tin oxide (ITO) coated glass electrodes was studied at 30oC. Cyclic voltammogrammetric results indicate that the reduction reaction of Se(IV) to Se(0) is not a simple four-electron reduction. Scanning electron microscopy reveals that the morphology of the selenium deposits is affected by the applied deposition potential and X-ray powder diffraction data indicates the Se deposits is the crystalline of t-Se phase.

Secondly, the electrodeposition of palladium-copper alloys in 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride–tetrafluoroborate ionic liquid containing excess chloride ions was studied on indium tin oxide (ITO) coated glass electrodes at 120°C. Cyclic voltammogrammetric results indicate that the thermodynamic deposition potential of copper is more negative than that of palladium. The presence of palladium(II) reduces the overpotential required for the deposition of copper. In addition, underpotential deposition of copper on the palladium electrode was observed. In contrast, the presence of copper(II) increases the overpotential required for the deposition of palladium. Palladium–copper coatings were prepared on the ITO electrode by constant potential electrolysis. Scanning electron microscopy results indicate that the deposits had nodular morphologies. Calculations from X-ray powder diffraction data show that the crystal size of the deposit decreased with increasing deposition overpotential. The prepared palladium–copper coatings adhered well on the ITO substrates and showed a good electrocatalytic capability for the electro-oxidation of ethanol in alkaline solution.
Electrodeposition of palladium–tin alloys from 1-ethyl-3-ethylimidazolium chloride–tetrafluoroborate ionic liquid was studied at 120°C. Sn(II) chloride reacts spontaneously with Pd(II) chloride, producing Sn(IV) and Pd nanoparticles. Solutions containing Sn(IV) and Pd(II) were used for potentiostatic electrodeposition of Pd–Sn. The composition of the Pd–Sn electrodeposits varied with the solution composition and deposition potential. Different alloy phases were observed with X-ray diffraction measurements.
Whereas the Pd-rich Pd–Sn solid solution deposits are composed of compact nodules, the Sn-rich intermetallic Pd–Sn deposits are composed of polyhedral crystals of various phases. Compared to Pd-coated electrodes, Pd–Sn solid-solution-coated electrodes show enhanced ethanol electro-oxidation efficiency and stability in alkaline aqueous solutions. As Sn content increased, new Pd/Sn intermetallic phases formed, resulting in reduced catalytic efficiency for ethanol oxidation.

Abstract (in English)………………………………………………………………….IІI
Abstract (in Chinese)………………………………………………………………...V
Acknoelegment……………………………………………………...........................VII
Caption of Tables……………………………………………………………………XII
Caption of Figures………………………………………………………………….XIII

Chapter I. The introduction of ionic liquids…………………………………………...1 
1-1	The classification of ionic liquids…………………………………………..1
1-2	Advantages and drawbacks of ionic liquids………………………………...3
1-3	The application of ionic liquid……………………………………………...5
1-4	The development of ionic liquid…………………………............................6
1-5	The properties of ionic liquids for electrochemistry………………………..9
1-6	The electrodeposition from ionic liquids…………………..........................12

Chapter II : Background and Research motive………………………………………16
   2-1 The Background of Solar Cell……………………………….........................16
     2.1.1 The principle of solar cell……………………………………………….16
     2.1.2 The variety of solar cell…………………………………........................16
2.1.3 The structure of the thin film solar cell for Copper indium 
 selenide (CIS)……………………………………………………………18
     2.1.4 The research motive for the electrodeposition of Cu-In alloy and Se film 
          from ionic liquid………………………………………………………...18
   2-2 The Background of Fuel Cell……………………………………………….19
    2.2.1 The principle of Fuel Cell………………………………………………...19
    2.2.2 The variety of Fuel Cell……………………………………......................20
    2.2.3 The research motive of Pd-bace alloy film for the SOFC ethanol fuel cell 
         (Direct ethanol fuel cell)………………………………….………………22

Chapter III : Experiment……………………………………………………………...27
   3-1 Electrochemical methods…………………………………………………….27
     3.1.1 Cyclic voltammetry……………………………………….......................27
     3.1.2 Rotating disc electrode voltammetry……………………………………27
     3.1.3 Chronoamperometry…………………………………………………….28
     3.1.4 Coulometric experiment…………………………………………………29
     3.1.5 Nucleation……………………………………………………………….30
   3-2 The material and instrument of experiment………………………………….31
     3.2.1 Glove box………………………………………………………………..31
     3.2.2 Potentiostat/galvanostat…………………………………………………31
     3.2.3 Three-electrode electrochemical cell……………………………………32
     3.2.4 Scanning Electron Microscope………………………………………….32
     3.2.5 TEM……………………………………………………………………..32
     3.2.6 X-Ray Diffraction Meter………………………………………………...32
3-3	Reagents…………………………………………………….......................32
3.3.1	1-Ethyl-3-Methylimidazolium Chloride，EMIC…………………….32
 3.3.2  1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium Chloride tetrafluoroborate ionicliquid  
        (EMI-Cl-BF4)……………………………………………………….33
      3.3.3 Chemicals………………………………………………………………34
      3.3.4 Ethanol electro-oxidation experiments…………………………………34

Chapter IV : Electrodeposition of Cu-In alloy and Se element in 
           1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium Chloride Tetrafluoroborate Ionic Liquid 
            (EMI-Cl-BF4) on Induim Tin Oxide Electrodes  (ITO)……………37
4-1 Electrodeposition CuIn alloy film on indium tin oxide electrodes………….37
     4.1.1 Introduction and background……………………………………………37
     4.1.2 Result and discussion……………………………………………………38
4.1.2.1  Voltammetric behavior…………………………………………..38
4.1.2.2	Bulk ekectrodeposition of Cu-In………………………………..40
4.1.2.3	Summary and conclusions…………………………....................43
4-2 Electrodeposition Se element film on indium tin oxide electrodes………….52
    4.2.1 Introduction and background…………………………………………….52
    4.2.2 Results and discussions……………………………………......................52
      4.2.2.1 Voltammetric behavior………………………………………………52
      4.2.2.2 Characterization of Electrodeposited Selenium………......................53
    4.2.3 Summary and conclusions…………………………………......................53
    4.2.4 Future work……………………………………………………………….54
Chapter V: Electrodepostion of Pd-bace alloy From 
1-	Ethyl-3-Methylimidazolium Chloride Tetrafluoroborate Ionic Liquid
on Indium Tin Oxide Electrodes for Ethanol electro-oxidation………..58
5-1 Electrodeposition PdCu alloy film on indium tin oxide electrodes for Ethanol 
    electro-oxidation…………………………………………………………….58
     5.1.1 Introduction and background……………………………………………58
     5.1.2 Results and discussions………………………………………………….59
       5.1.2.1 Voltammetric behavior……………………………………………..59
       5.1.2.2 Preparation and characterization of Pd–Cu codeposits…………….62
    5.1.3 Electro-oxidation of ethanol on Pd–Cu-coated electrode…………………65
      5.1.3.1 Introduction…………………………………………..........................65
      5.1.3.2 Results and discussion………………………………..........................66
5.1.4	Summary and conclusions……………………………………………..71
5-2 Electrodeposition PdSn alloy film on indium tin oxide electrodes for Ethanol 
    electro-oxidation…………………………………………………………….89
     5.2.1 Introduction and background…………………………………………….89
     5.2.2 Results and Discussions…………………………………………………91
       5.2.2.1 Voltammetric behavior……………………………………………..91
       5.2.2.2 Preparation and characterization of Pd–Sn codeposits……………..92
        5.2.2.3 Electro-oxidation of ethanol on Pd–Sn-coated graphite  
               Electrodes……………………………………………...................94
     5.2.3 Conclusions……………………………………………………………..96
 Reference………………………………………………………………………….108


                           Captions of Tables

Table 1.1 The melting point of alkali metal chloride molten salts……………………2
Table 1.2 The ions and notations adopted to describe the various cations……………8
Table 5.1Charges passed during the cathodic deposition, Qc, and the anodic stripping, 
       Qa, estimated from cyclic voltammograms shown in Fig. 5.4…………….72
Table 5.2 if, ib, and if/ib measured from CVs of ethanol electrooxidation on Pd-ITO 
      and PdxCu1-x-ITO electrodes with various compositions (x = 1 to 0.5)………73
Table 5.3 The atom content ratio of PdCu alloy film on graphite 
        Substrates……………………………………………………………….....73

                           Captions of Figures
Figure 1.1 Common ionic liquids include cation and anion ………………………..3
Figure 1.2 The quality of ionic liquids………………………………………………5
Figure 1.3 The electrochemical window of the Lewis acid-base ionic liquid. (a) Lewis 
         base (b) neutral (c) Lewis acid EMIC-AlCl3……………………………10
Figure 1.4 The electrochemical window of the EMIC-BF4 ionic liquid (a) neutral (b) 
         basic ionic liquid…………………………………………………………11
Figure 2.1 The structure of crystalline silicon solar cell..............................................23
Figure 2.2 The structure of the thin film solar cell for CIS………………………….24
Figure 2.3 The structure of the “Chalcopyrite” crystal for CuInSe2…………………24
Figure 2.4 The Structure of Fuel Cell…………………………………......................25
Figure 2.5 Structure and decribation of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell…….25
Figure 2.6 The structure of the SOFC methanol fuel cells……………......................26
Figure 3.1 (a) Potential-time profile used in cyclic voltammetry (b) cyclic 
           voltammogram for a reversible reaction………………………………35 
Figure 3.2 The glove box…………………………………………………………….35
Figure 3.3 The structure of three-electrode electrochemical cell……………………36
Figure 4.1 Cyclic voltammograms of (a)50mM Cu(II) and (b)50mM In(III) and 
         50mM Cu(II) plus (c) 30, (d) 50 mM In(III) in a EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid 
         at a ITO electrode at 30 oC. Scan rate is 50mVs-1………………………..45
Figure 4.2 Cyclic voltammograms of 50mM In(III) and (a) 0, (b) 1, (c) 20, (d) 40 and 
         (e) 60mM Cu(II) in a EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid at a ITO electrode at 30 oC. 
          Scan rate is 50mVs-1……………………………………………………46
Figure 4.3 The EDX date of variation of the In content with deposition potential in the 
         electrodeposits prepared from the EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid (◆) 50 mM 
         Cu(II) + 50 mM In(III). (■) 30mM Cu(II) + 50mM In(III) at 30oC…….47
Figure 4.4 XRD patterns (Cu Kα) of the Cu-In electrodeposits prepared on ITO 
         substrates from EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid containing: 50mM In(III) and 
         (A)50, (B) 30 mM Cu(II) at 30 oC…………………………………..….48
Figure 4.5 SEM micrographs of Cu-In electrodeposits prepared on ITO substrates 
         from a EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid solution containing: 30mM In(III) and 
         50mM Cu(II) at a deposition potential of: (a)-1.0 V (In a/o = 4), (b) -1.1 V 
         (In a/o = 43), (c) -1.2 V (In a/o = 46)…………………………………..49
Figure 4.6 SEM micrographs of Cu-In electrodeposits prepared on ITO substrates 
         from a EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid solution containing: 30 mM In(III) and 50 
         mM Cu(II) at a deposition potential of: (a)-1.0 V (In a/o = 5), (b) -1.2 V 
         (Sn a/o = 12), (c) –1.3 V (Sn a/o = 29)(d).-1.5 V (Sn a/o = 47).............50
Figure 4.7 (a) SEM micrographs and EDS mappings of (b) Cu, and (c) In elements in 
            the Cu–In electrodeposit prepared at -1.5 V….................................51
Figure 4.8 Cyclic voltammogram of a 50 mM solution of Se(IV) recorded at a GC 
         electrode in the EMI-Cl-BF4 IL. The scan rate was 50 mVs-1 at 30 oC...55
Figure 4.9 XRD patterns (Cu Kα) of different deposited potential for preparing Se 
         film on ITO substrates from EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid at 30 oC………..56
Figure 4.10 SEM micrographs of Se film electrodeposits prepared on ITO substrates 
          from a EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid solution containing: 50 mM Se(IV) at a 
          deposition potential of: (a) -0.6 V, (b)-0.75 V, (c) -1.15 V and (d) -1.4 V
          ………………………………………………………………………...57
Figure 5.1 Cyclic voltammograms of (a) 20 mM Cu(II), (b)30 mM Pd(II), and 20 mM 
         Cu(II) plus (c) 10, (d) 30 mM Pd(II) in a EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid at a ITO 
          electrode at 120℃. Scan rate was 50mVs-1…………………………..74
Figure 5.2 Cyclic voltammograms of 20 mM Cu(II) in a EMI–Cl–BF4 ionic liquid 
         recorded on a Pd electrode at 120°C……………………………………..75
Figure 5.3 (a) Cu(II) IL solution recorded on a Pd electrode scan the reduction of c3’   
           wave (-0.6 V) at different scan rate (b) 20 mM Cu(II) IL solution 
           recorded on a Pd electrode scan was held at -0.55 V(c3’ wave) for 0, 20, 
           40, 60, 140s before reverse scan………………………………………76
Figure 5.4 Cyclic voltammograms of 30 mM Pd(II) and (a) 0, (b) 10, (c) 20, (d) 40 
         and (e) 50 mM Cu(II) in a EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid at a ITO electrode at 
         120oC. Scan rate was 50mVs-1…………………………………………..77
Figure 5.5 (A)Cyclic voltammograms of 30mM Pd(II), and 10mM Cu(II) in a 
         EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid at a ITO electrode at 120oC.  Scan rate was 
         10mVs-1…………………………………………………………………78
Figure 5.6 SEM micrographs of Pd-Cu electrodeposits prepared on ITO substrates 
         from a EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid solution containing: 30 mM Pd(II) and 10 
         mM Cu(II) at a deposition potential of: (a) -0.35 V, (b) -0.4 V, (c) -0.45 V 
         and (d) -0.6 V…………………………………………………………..79
Figure 5.7 XRD patterns (Cu Kα) of the Pd-Cu electrodeposits prepared on ITO 
         substrates from EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid containing: 30mM Pd(II) and 
          (A)10, (B) 40 mM Cu(II) at 120 oC…..................................................80
Figure 5.8 (a) The lattice parameter calculated from the position of the [111] peak in 
          Fig. 5.7(A) vs. deposit composition. (b)The EDX date of variation of the    
         Cu content with deposition potential in the electrodeposits prepared from 
          the EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid containing 30 mM Pd(II) and 10 mM Cu(II).  
          The Cu content was determined from: (◆) EDS data, and (■) XRD data 
          using Vegard’s rule. Deposition temperature was 120oC.....................81.
Figure 5.9 (A) Cyclic voltammograms recorded on the Pd-ITO, the Cu-ITO and 
          Pd60Cu40 -ITOelectrodes in 1M KOH (B) The multi-cycle 
          voltammograms of a Pd0.6Cu0.4-ITO electrode in a 1.0M KOH 
          solution……………………………………………………………….82
Figure 5.10 CVs of ethanol oxidation in a 1.0 M KOH + 1.0 M C2H5OH solution on a  
          Pd-ITO electrode (curve a), a Pd0.6Cu0.4-ITO electrode (curve b, alloy 
          loading: 1.2x10-5 mol cm-2) and insert on a Cu-ITO electrode………83
Figure 5.11 (A) Multi-cycle voltammograms of Pd60Cu40 / ITO electrode in a 1.0 M  
           KOH + 1.0 M C2H5OH solution. (B) The chronoamperometric 
           experiment at 0.15 V versus Ag/AgCl in 1.0 M KOH + 1.0 M C2H5OH 
           solution at room temperature. (curve a, Pd-ITO, curve b, 
           Pd0.85Cu0.15-ITO, curve c, Pd0.75Cu0.25-ITO and curve d, Pd0.6Cu0.4-ITO).
           ………………………………………………………………………84
Figure 5.12 SEM image of a typical Pd0.6Cu0.4-ITO electrode (A) before and (B) after 
          ethanol-oxidation experiment…………………………………………85
Figure 5.13 SEM micrographs of (a) pure graphite and (b) PdCu film on graphite 
          substrates from a [EMIm]Cl-BF4 ionic liquid solution containing: 30mM 
          Pd(II) and10mM Cu(II).  Deposition temperature was 120oC………86
Figure 5.14 Cyclic voltammograms measured different content of Cu on PdCu alloy 
          film in 1.0M KOH + 1.0M C2H5OH at graphite electrode and inset is (a) 
          Pure graphite (b)Pure ITO (c) PdCu(60:40) film at ITO (d) PdCu(60:40) 
          film at graphite in 1.0M KOH with 1.0M C2H5OH. Scan rate of 50mVs-1
          ………………………………………………………………………..87
Figure 5.15(a)Cyclic voltammograms of ethanol oxidation (b) Chronoamperometric. 
          curves for ethanol electrooxidation at -0.3V V versus Ag/AgCl on a PdCu 
          film electrode with a Pd loading of 0.4 mg/ cm2 in 1.0 M KOH solution 
          containing 1.0M ethanol at scan rate of 50 mVs-1…………………….88
Figure 5.16 Cyclic voltammograms of (a) 20mM Sn (II), (b) 20mM Sn (IV), (c)  
          50mM Pd (II) and plus (d) 10 and (e) 20 mM Sn(II) in a EMI-Cl-BF4 
          ionic liquid at a GC electrode at 120oC. Scan rate was 50mVs-1………97
Figure 5.17 (a)TEM of Pd clusters, (b) Pd nanoparticle and (c) Electron diffraction  
           pattern of Pd nanoparticles from reaction of Sn(II) and Pd(II) in the  
           EMI-Cl-BF4 at 120 oC………………………………………………98
Figure 5.18 The EDX date of variation of the Cu content with deposition potential in 
          the electrodeposits prepared from the EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid 
          containing: (▲) 30 mM Pd(II) + 20 mM Sn(IV) and (■) 20 mM Pd(II) + 
          30 M Sn(IV)…………………………………………………………….99
Figure 5.19 XRD patterns (Cu Kα) of different Pd-Sn alloy electrodeposits prepared 
          on ITO substrates from EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid……………………..100
Figure 5.20 SEM micrographs of Pd-Sn electrodeposits prepared on ITO substrates 
          from a EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid solution containing: 20mM Pd(II) and 
          30mM Sn(II) at a deposition potential of: (a) -0.7 V (Sn a/o = 44), (b) 
          -0.8 V (Sn a/o = 62) and (c) -0.9 V (Sn a/o = 65). Deposition temperature 
          was 120oC…………………………………………………………...101
Figure 5.21 SEM micrographs of Pd-Sn electrodeposits prepared on ITO substrates 
          from a EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid solution containing: 20mM Pd(II) and 30 
          mM Sn(II) at a deposition potential of: (a) -0.7 V (Sn a/o = 44), (b) -0.8 
          V (Sn a/o = 62) and (c) -0.9 V (Sn a/o = 65). Deposition temperature was 
          120oC…………………………………………………………………102
Figure 5.22 SEM micrographs of (a) Pd film and (b) Pd91Sn9 film deposited on 
          graphite substrates from a EMI-Cl-BF4 ionic liquid solution containing: 
          30 mM Pd(II) and 20 mM Sn(IV). Deposition temperature was 120Co
          ……………………………………………………………………….103
Figure 5.23 Cyclic voltammograms recorded on the Pd/C, the Sn/C and PdSn /C 
          electrodes: (a) without and (b) with ethanol in 1 M KOH……………104
Figure 5.24 Cyclic voltammograms recorded on (a) Pd97Sn3, (b) Pd91Sn9, (c) Pd75Sn25, 
          and (d) Pd69Sn31 film-coated graphite electrodes in a 1.0 M KOH + 1.0 M 
          C2H5OH solution………………………………………………………105
Figure 5.25 Multi-cycle voltammograms of PdxSn100-x /Celectrode in a 1.0 M KOH + 
          1.0 M C2H5OH solution……………………………………………….106
Figure 5.26 Current-time curve recorded for chronoamperometric experiment on 
          various electrodes at - 0.15 V versus Ag/AgCl in 1.0 M KOH + 1.0 M 
          C2H5OH solution at room temperature……………………………….107
                                    

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