本篇論文研究主要分三個部分，第一部分是利用台積電CMOS 0.18μm 高壓製程來製作單光子雪崩式偵測器，並且藉由TCAD 模擬其元件工作特性來研究元件內部的操作情形，摻雜濃度，內部電場分布等等。
第二部分藉由重新製作其他文獻中的單光子雪崩偵測器來建立針對元件指標參數的量測手法，例如光偵測效率，時間抖動分析等等，並利用所測得之崩潰電壓來擬合模擬結果，推算0.18 高壓製程中的摻雜濃度，將元件工作結果與元件模擬相互比較驗證。過程中設計出了一種時間解析度較優異的元件結構，其抖動分布略低於參考文獻中之元件。第三部分為針對元件應用進行設計，其一，增加偵測器中的p-n 接面數量，形成雙重接面，以觀察對不同波長的光是否有不同的響應時間。其二，將偵測器中心部分空出，使邏輯電路可以製作於偵測器元件內部以增加填充因子，並且利用背面照光的方式進行光感測。最後，利用亞能隙吸收原理以及自行製造之單光子雪崩偵測器的高增益特性來測量光子能量低於矽之能隙的光源，結合第二與第三項設計，我們利用背面照光的方式，讓Si-based SPAD 在1330nm 的光偵測效率反超635nm 時的光偵測效率。

This thesis research is divided into three parts. The first part is to use TSMC CMOS 0.18 high-voltage process to make single-photon avalanche detectors, and to simulate the operating characteristics of devices by TCAD to study the internal operation of the device,including doping concentration, internal electric field distribution, etc. In the second part, by re-creating the single-photon avalanche detectors in other literatures to establish measurement methods for index parameters of components, such as light detection efficiency, timing jitter analysis, etc., and use the measured breakdown voltage to fit the simulation results , Estimate the doping concentration in the 0.18 high-pressure process. In the process, we designed a device which structure with excellent time resolution, and its jitter distribution is slightly lower than the devices in the reference. The last part is to design new device for different applications. First, increase the number of p-n junctions in the detector to form dual-junction to observe whether there is a different response time to light of different wavelengths. Second, the central part of the detector is vacated, so that the logic circuit can be made inside the detector element to increase the fill factor, and use backlighting method for light sensing. Finally, using the sub-bandgap absorption principle and the high-gain characteristics of the self-made single-photon avalanche detectors to measure light sources with photon energy lower than the energy gap of silicon.

[1] Brian F. Aull. Geiger-Mode Avalanche Photodiode Arrays Integrated to All-Digital CMOS Circuits. Sensors. 16(4). (2016).
[2] D. Decoster. & J. Harari. Optoelectronic Sensors.p.57~p.60.ISTE Ltd (2009).
[3] R. A. Serway Physics for Scientists & Engineers .3rd ed. Saunders. p. 1150. (1990).
[4] G. F. Dalla Betta, Advances in photodiodes, InTech, (2011).
[5] A. Gallivanovi, I. Rench and M. Ghioni, Progress in quenching circuits for single photon avalanche diodes, IEEE transactions on nuclear science, 57 (2010).
[6] S. M. Sze and K. K. Ng, Physics of semiconductor device, Wiley, 3rd (2006).
[7]R. H. Hatz, Mechanisms Contributing to the noise pulse rate of avalanche diodes, Journal of applied physics, 36 (1965).
[8] N. Palina, T. Mueller, S. Mohanti and A. G. Aberle, "Laser assisted boron doping of silicon wafer solar cells using nanosecond and picosecond laser pulses," 2011 37th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Seattle, WA, pp. 2193-2197, (2011)
[9] S. Donati, Photodetectors Devices Circuit and Application, (2000).
[10] J. P. Jansson, “A stabilized multi-channel CMOS time-to-digital converter based on a low frequency reference”, PhD thesis, Oulu, 2012.
[11] J. Y. Wu, Characteristic and Application of Single Photon Avalanche Photodiode with Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Process.(2015)
[12] L. D. Huang, J. Y. Wu, J. P. Wang, C. M. Tsai, Y. H. Huang, D. R. Wu, and S. D. Lin . Single-photon avalanche diodes in 0.18-μm high-voltage CMOS technology. Optics Express Vol. 25, Issue 12, pp. 13333-13339 (2017).
[13] F. Z. Hsu ,Single Photon Avalanche Diode with Low Dark Count Rate in Standard CMOS Technology (2012).
[14] Z. R. Lee, Characteristic of Single Photon Avalanche Diode with Vertical and Lateral Structures. (2011).
[15] TCAD Sentaurus™ Tutorial , Sentaurus Device. Synopsys, Inc. 2015
[16] L. D. Huang, Single Photon Avalanche Diode Fabricated with Standard CMOS High Voltage Technology.(2015).
[17] J. A. Richardson, Time Resolved Single Photon Imaging in Nanometer Scale CMOS Technology.(2010).
[18]A. Giudice, M. Ghioni, R. Biasi, F. Zappa, S. Cova, P. Maccagnani & A. Gulinatti High-rate photon counting and picosecond timing with silicon-SPAD based compact detector modules, Journal of Modern Optics, 54:2-3, pp.225-237.(2007).
[19]W. G. Oldham, R. R. Samuelson and P. Antognetti, "Triggering phenomena in avalanche diodes," in IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, vol. 19, no. 9, pp. 1056-1060, (1972).
[20] H. J. Hsu Single Photon Avalanche Diode Controlled by Active Quenching Circuit (2011).
[21] S. Cova, M. Ghioni, A. Lotitio, I. Rech, F. Zappa, Evolution and prospects for single-photon avalanche diodes and quenching circuits, Journal of Modern Optics, vol. 51, Issue 9., pp.1267-1288, (2004).
[22] H. Mitchell, Timing Jitter Tutorial & Measurement Guide, SILICON LABS,(2017).
[23] Brochure about PicoQuant's laser products, Picoquant.(2019).
[24] R. K. Henderson, E. A. G. Webster and L. A. Grant, "A Dual-Junction Single-Photon Avalanche Diode in 130-nm CMOS Technology," in IEEE Electron Device Letters, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 429-431,(2013).
[25] G. Ribordy, J. D. Gautier, H. Zbinden, and N. Gisin, Performance of InGaAs/InP avalanche photodiodes as gated-mode photon counters, Applied Optics Vol. 37, Issue 12, pp. 2272-2277 (1998).
[26] M. Göppert-Mayer, Ann. Phys. pp.273–294.(1931).
[27] Mahr, H. "Chapter 4. Two-Photon Absorption Spectroscopy". In Herbert Rabin, C. L. Tang (ed.). Quantum Electronics: A Treatise, Volume 1. Nonlinear Optics, Part A. Academic Press. pp. 286–363. (2012).
[28] G. Xu et al., "Sensitive Infrared Photon Counting Detection by Nondegenerate Two-Photon Absorption in Si APD," in IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, vol. 31, no. 24, pp. 1944-1947, (2019).
[29] Hayat, A., Ginzburg, P. & Orenstein, M. Infrared single-photon detection by two-photon absorption in silicon. Phys. Rev. B 77, 125219 (2008).
[30] D. Palubiak, 15 CMOS Single Photon Avalanche Diodes and Time-To-Digital Converter for Time Resolved Fluorescence Analysis.(2015).
[31] S.C. Li, Photon Detection Characteristics of Single Photon Avalanche Diode.(2013).
[32] C. Hille, M. Lahn, C. Dosche, Two-photon Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging (2P-FLIM) for Ion Sensing in Living Cells(2008).