研究背景：據統計，平均每人每天約有 80%以上的時間都待在室內空間中，除了住家，學校和辦公室等公共區域也是民眾主要的活動空間。近年研究已證實室內溫度以及空氣污染物的暴露，特別是細懸浮微粒 (PM2.5) 和臭氧，會增加人體的健康危害風險。然而，過去研究大都以死亡率或是盛行率的相對風險等單一角度來探討室內危害因子的暴露對人體健康的影響，該方法較難直接用以比較不同地區或國家的疾病負擔情況。失能調整生命年 (Disability-Adjusted Life Year, DALY) 可將疾病的發病率和死亡率的影響轉換成具可比較性的健康指標，有利於不同地區因暴露到空氣污染物以及溫度造成的疾病負擔之比較。同時，實際環境中均同時存在多種空氣污染物，而過去研究多僅考量單一污染物的暴露，較少呈現多重空氣污染物暴露之疾病負擔的估算。
研究目的：探討多重暴露「室內空氣污染物和溫度」的暴露對人體造成的健康危害風險，並估算具有「可比較性」和「可用於計算經濟損失成本」的DALY。
研究方法：以多重暴露模型Weighted Exposure Model估算同時暴露PM2.5、臭氧及會造成風險溫度之相對風險，並轉換為人群可歸因分率 (population attributable fraction, PAF) 後用以計算各區域可歸因於多重暴露造成的DALY。空氣污染物的資料來自行政院環境保護署彙整全國以公告方法進行採樣與分析的公共空間之PM2.5和臭氧濃度以及溫度等資料，監測資料的時間為2013-2015年，此資料涵蓋台灣北部、中部及南部的公共空間，採樣之建築物樣本數分別有404、265和180筆。健康資料來自衛生福利部資料科學中心的200萬人抽樣檔 (門急診、住院、死因和癌症登記) 之缺血性心臟病 (ICD-9-CM 410-414、ICD-10-CM I20-I25)、中風 (ICD-9-CM 430-438、ICD-10-CM I60-69)、慢性阻塞性肺病 (ICD-9-CM 490-496、ICD-10-CM J40-44) 和肺癌 (ICD-9-CM 162、ICD-10-CM C33-34)。統計模型中的空氣污染物及溫度對四種疾病的風險值 (relative risk) 取自於過去的文獻。
結果：台灣北中南地區公共空間之室內年平均PM2.5濃度分別為14.97 μg/m3、14.93 μg/m3及16.30 μg/m3，臭氧為12.32 ppb、27.12 ppb及22.48 ppb，年平均室內溫度為24.95°C、28.64°C及27.02°C。全台灣 (排除東部及離島) 民眾因暴露室內PM2.5所損失的缺血性心臟病、中風、慢性阻塞肺疾病及肺癌的DALY平均分別為每百萬人731.08-2761.67、573.02-2411.50、844.10-1286.66及433.53-758.18人年，占了總疾病的6.6-24.8%、4.6-19.5%、9.6-14.6%及4.8-8.4%。研究使用極端值來估算若暴露在極為嚴重的室內臭氧濃度下造成的疾病負擔，估算結果顯示缺血性心臟病、中風及慢性阻塞性肺病分別為每百萬人469.88、38.82和2197.86人年，約占各個疾病的4.2%、0.3%和25.0%。利用多重暴露模型估算出同時暴露室內PM2.5及臭氧僅導致中南部中風及COPD的DALY分別為每百萬人889.66-945.81及1152.00-1223.50人年，分別佔各個疾病的7.2-7.6%及13.1-13.9%，並以南部占有的DALY最高。多重暴露室內空氣污染物共造成疾病負擔介於每百萬人2041.66至2169.31人年。
結論：暴露本研究之室內空氣污染物顯著增加中風盛行及慢性阻塞性肺病死亡風險並加重本國疾病負擔。研究利用已發表之數學統計模式，評估目前環境議題中備受矚目的”多重”空氣污染物之相對風險，並進一步結合公共衛生領域之疾病負擔指標。研究結合各領域的優點，以利估算出更接近真實暴露情況和疾病負擔，並可進一步應用於衛生經濟學的計算，以推估醫療措施成本及價值。
關鍵詞：失能調整生命年、多重暴露、室內空氣污染物、室內溫度、疾病負擔

Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that exposure to multiple air pollutants or extreme temperature was associated with reporting cardiovascular and respiratory disease. However, previous studies mostly focused on single air pollutant or only on temperature. Meanwhile, people often spend over 80% of their time indoors. The study is therefore aimed to investigate adverse health effects linked to multiple exposure to both indoor air pollution and extreme temperature and corresponding disease burden. This study utilized the indoor environmental monitoring data of public places collected in the past and calculated the average concentration of PM2.5 and ozone exposed by the public from 2013 to 2015, as well as the annual average indoor temperature. Multiple exposure model was used to estimate the risk of simultaneous exposure for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. Exposure to indoor air pollution only is attributable to the disease burden of stroke and COPD in the central and southern regions, the disability-adjusted life year (DALY) were 889.66-945.81 and 1152.00-1223.50, respectively, accounting for 7.2-7.6% and 13.1-13.9% of each disease, respectively. Finally, the total disease burden estimated by multiple exposures ranges between 2041.66-2169.31 DALYs. Estimating the burden of disease associated with exposure to air pollutants can further support the estimation of cost and value of medical measures and will hopefully be applied in developing public health policy in the future.

Aaron CP, Hoffman EA, Kawut SM, Austin JH, Budoff M, Michos ED, et al. 2019. Ambient air pollution and pulmonary vascular volume on computed tomography: The mesa air pollution and lung cohort studies. European Respiratory Journal 53:1802116.
Abtahi M, Koolivand A, Dobaradaran S, Yaghmaeian K, Mohseni-Bandpei A, Khaloo SS, et al. 2017. National and sub-national age-sex specific and cause-specific mortality and disability-adjusted life years (dalys) attributable to household air pollution from solid cookfuel use (hap) in iran, 1990–2013. Environmental research 156:87-96.
Adiningsih R, Hairuddin MC. 2021. The incidence of sick building syndrome and its causes on employees at the governor’s office of west sulawesi province. The Indonesian Journal Of Occupational Safety and Health 10:153-160.
Analitis A, Katsouyanni K, Biggeri A, Baccini M, Forsberg B, Bisanti L, et al. 2008. Effects of cold weather on mortality: Results from 15 european cities within the phewe project. American journal of epidemiology 168:1397-1408.
Anderson GB, Dominici F, Wang Y, McCormack MC, Bell ML, Peng RD. 2013. Heat-related emergency hospitalizations for respiratory diseases in the medicare population. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine 187:1098-1103.
ASHRAE A. 2013. Standard 62.1-2013 ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc, Atlanta, GA:40.
Atkinson R, Butland B, Dimitroulopoulou C, Heal M, Stedman J, Carslaw N, et al. 2016. Long-term exposure to ambient ozone and mortality: A quantitative systematic review and meta-analysis of evidence from cohort studies. BMJ open 6:e009493.
Atkinson RW, Butland BK, Dimitroulopoulou C, Heal MR, Stedman JR, Carslaw N, et al. 2016. Long-term exposure to ambient ozone and mortality: A quantitative systematic review and meta-analysis of evidence from cohort studies. BMJ open 6:e009493.
Aunan K, Pan XC. 2004. Exposure-response functions for health effects of ambient air pollution applicable for china -- a meta-analysis. Sci Total Environ 329:3-16.
Balakrishnan K, Dey S, Gupta T, Dhaliwal R, Brauer M, Cohen AJ, et al. 2019. The impact of air pollution on deaths, disease burden, and life expectancy across the states of india: The global burden of disease study 2017. The Lancet Planetary Health 3:e26-e39.
Balmes JR. 2019. Household air pollution from domestic combustion of solid fuels and health. J Allergy Clin Immunol 143:1979-1987.
Barkjohn KK, Norris C, Cui X, Fang L, Zheng T, Schauer JJ, et al. 2021. Real‐time measurements of pm2. 5 and ozone to assess the effectiveness of residential indoor air filtration in shanghai homes. Indoor air 31:74-87.
Barrese E, Gioffrè A, Scarpelli M, Turbante D, Trovato R, Iavicoli S. 2014. Indoor pollution in work office: Vocs, formaldehyde and ozone by printer. Occupational Diseases and Environmental Medicine 2014.
Beelen R, Raaschou-Nielsen O, Stafoggia M, Andersen ZJ, Weinmayr G, Hoffmann B, et al. 2014a. Effects of long-term exposure to air pollution on natural-cause mortality: An analysis of 22 european cohorts within the multicentre escape project. The lancet 383:785-795.
Beelen R, Stafoggia M, Raaschou-Nielsen O, Andersen ZJ, Xun WW, Katsouyanni K, et al. 2014b. Long-term exposure to air pollution and cardiovascular mortality: An analysis of 22 european cohorts. Epidemiology:368-378.
Bekö G, Clausen G, Weschler CJ. 2008. Is the use of particle air filtration justified? Costs and benefits of filtration with regard to health effects, building cleaning and occupant productivity. Building and Environment 43:1647-1657.
Borge R, Requia WJ, Yagüe C, Jhun I, Koutrakis P. 2019. Impact of weather changes on air quality and related mortality in spain over a 25 year period [1993–2017]. Environment international 133:105272.
Braniš M, Řezáčová P, Domasová M. 2005. The effect of outdoor air and indoor human activity on mass concentrations of pm10, pm2. 5, and pm1 in a classroom. Environmental research 99:143-149.
Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. 2018. Global cancer statistics 2018: Globocan estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA: a cancer journal for clinicians 68:394-424.
Brook RD, Rajagopalan S, Pope III CA, Brook JR, Bhatnagar A, Diez-Roux AV, et al. 2010. Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease: An update to the scientific statement from the american heart association. Circulation 121:2331-2378.
Brunekreef B, Holgate ST. 2002. Air pollution and health. The lancet 360:1233-1242.
Burnett RT, Pope III CA, Ezzati M, Olives C, Lim SS, Mehta S, et al. 2014. An integrated risk function for estimating the global burden of disease attributable to ambient fine particulate matter exposure. Environmental health perspectives 122:397-403.
Cakmak S, Hebbern C, Vanos J, Crouse DL, Burnett R. 2016. Ozone exposure and cardiovascular-related mortality in the canadian census health and environment cohort (canchec) by spatial synoptic classification zone. Environmental Pollution 214:589-599.
Cakmak S, Hebbern C, Pinault L, Lavigne E, Vanos J, Crouse DL, et al. 2018. Associations between long-term pm2. 5 and ozone exposure and mortality in the canadian census health and environment cohort (canchec), by spatial synoptic classification zone. Environment international 111:200-211.
Cao R, Wang Y, Huang J, Zeng Q, Pan X, Li G, et al. 2021. The construction of the air quality health index (aqhi) and a validity comparison based on three different methods. Environmental Research 197:110987.
Chan C-C, Chuang K-J, Chien L-C, Chen W-J, Chang W-T. 2006. Urban air pollution and emergency admissions for cerebrovascular diseases in taipei, taiwan. European heart journal 27:1238-1244.
Chang H-T, Wu C-D, Wang J-D, Chen P-S, Wang Y-J, Su H-J. 2020. Green space structures and schizophrenia incidence in taiwan: Is there an association? Environmental Research Letters.
Chang HT, Wu CD, Pan WC, Lung SC, Su HJ. 2019. Association between surrounding greenness and schizophrenia: A taiwanese cohort study. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16.
Chang K-L, Marécal V, Deushi M, Liu J, Serre ML, Keller CA, et al. 2018. A new method (m $^ 3$ fusion-v1) for combining observations and multiple model output for an improved estimate of the global surface ozone distribution. Geoscientific model development discussions 183:1-34.
Chen K, Wolf K, Breitner S, Gasparrini A, Stafoggia M, Samoli E, et al. 2018. Two-way effect modifications of air pollution and air temperature on total natural and cardiovascular mortality in eight european urban areas. Environment international 116:186-196.
Chen Y-Y, Sung F-C, Chen M-L, Mao I, Lu C-Y. 2016. Indoor air quality in the metro system in north taiwan. International journal of environmental research and public health 13:1200.
Chen Y, Li X, Zhu T, Han Y, Lv D. 2017. Pm2. 5-bound pahs in three indoor and one outdoor air in beijing: Concentration, source and health risk assessment. Science of The Total Environment 586:255-264.
Chen Z, Salam MT, Eckel SP, Breton CV, Gilliland FD. 2015. Chronic effects of air pollution on respiratory health in southern california children: Findings from the southern california children’s health study. Journal of thoracic disease 7:46.
Cheng S-L, Chan M-C, Wang C-C, Lin C-H, Wang H-C, Hsu J-Y, et al. 2015. Copd in taiwan: A national epidemiology survey. International journal of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 10:2459.
Cheng T-YD, Cramb SM, Baade PD, Youlden DR, Nwogu C, Reid ME. 2016. The international epidemiology of lung cancer: Latest trends, disparities, and tumor characteristics. Journal of Thoracic Oncology 11:1653-1671.
Cho S, Cox‐Ganser J, Park JH. 2016. Observational scores of dampness and mold associated with measurements of microbial agents and moisture in three public schools. Indoor air 26:168-178.
Chou CC-K, Lee C-T, Chen W-N, Chang S-Y, Chen T-K, Lin C-Y, et al. 2007. Lidar observations of the diurnal variations in the depth of urban mixing layer: A case study on the air quality deterioration in taipei, taiwan. Sci Total Environ 374:156-166.
Chuang H-C, Ho K-F, Lin L-Y, Chang T-Y, Hong G-B, Ma C-M, et al. 2017. Long-term indoor air conditioner filtration and cardiovascular health: A randomized crossover intervention study. Environment international 106:91-96.
Cincinelli A, Martellini T. 2017. Indoor air quality and health. Int J Environ Res Public Health 14.
Cohen AJ, Brauer M, Burnett R, Anderson HR, Frostad J, Estep K, et al. 2017. Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: An analysis of data from the global burden of diseases study 2015. The Lancet 389:1907-1918.
Collaborators GRF. 2016. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks, 1990–2015: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2015. Lancet (London, England) 388:1659.
Collaborators GRF. 2018. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 84 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2017: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2017. Lancet (London, England) 392:1923.
Cotes JE, Chinn DJ, Miller MR. 2009. Lung function: Physiology, measurement and application in medicine:John Wiley & Sons.
Cristina B, Foltescu V, Leeuw F. 2014. Air quality and tends in europe, atmospheric environmental 98: 376–384.
Danesh Yazdi M, Wang Y, Di Q, Zanobetti A, Schwartz J. 2019. Long-term exposure to pm(2.5) and ozone and hospital admissions of medicare participants in the southeast USA. Environ Int 130:104879.
Davalos AD, Luben TJ, Herring AH, Sacks JD. 2017. Current approaches used in epidemiologic studies to examine short-term multipollutant air pollution exposures. Annals of epidemiology 27:145-153. e141.
Devleesschauwer B, Havelaar AH, De Noordhout CM, Haagsma JA, Praet N, Dorny P, et al. 2014. Calculating disability-adjusted life years to quantify burden of disease. International journal of public health 59:565-569.
Di Q, Wang Y, Zanobetti A, Wang Y, Koutrakis P, Choirat C, et al. 2017. Air pollution and mortality in the medicare population. New England Journal of Medicine 376:2513-2522.
Diffey BL. 2011. An overview analysis of the time people spend outdoors. British Journal of Dermatology 164:848-854.
Dockery DW, Pope CA, Xu X, Spengler JD, Ware JH, Fay ME, et al. 1993. An association between air pollution and mortality in six us cities. New England journal of medicine 329:1753-1759.
Dominici F, Peng RD, Bell ML, Pham L, McDermott A, Zeger SL, et al. 2006. Fine particulate air pollution and hospital admission for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. Jama 295:1127-1134.
Dominici F, Peng RD, Barr CD, Bell ML. 2010. Protecting human health from air pollution: Shifting from a single-pollutant to a multi-pollutant approach. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass) 21:187.
Edenhofer O. 2015. Climate change 2014: Mitigation of climate change:Cambridge University Press.
Fenech S, Aquilina NJ. 2020. Trends in ambient ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and particulate matter concentrations over the maltese islands and the corresponding health impacts. Science of The Total Environment 700:134527.
Ferlay J, Colombet M, Soerjomataram I, Mathers C, Parkin D, Piñeros M, et al. 2019. Estimating the global cancer incidence and mortality in 2018: Globocan sources and methods. International journal of cancer 144:1941-1953.
Fisk WJ, Rosenfeld AH. 1997. Estimates of improved productivity and health from better indoor environments. Indoor air 7:158-172.
Gakidou E, Afshin A, Abajobir AA, Abate KH, Abbafati C, Abbas KM, et al. 2017. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 84 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks, 1990–2016: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2016. The Lancet 390:1345-1422.
Gasparrini A, Guo Y, Hashizume M, Lavigne E, Zanobetti A, Schwartz J, et al. 2015. Mortality risk attributable to high and low ambient temperature: A multicountry observational study. The Lancet 386:369-375.
GBD. 2019. State of global air 2019 report. Available: http://www.healthdata.org/news-release/state-global-air-2019-report.
Gordon SB, Bruce NG, Grigg J, Hibberd PL, Kurmi OP, Lam K-bH, et al. 2014. Respiratory risks from household air pollution in low and middle income countries. The Lancet Respiratory Medicine 2:823-860.
Gordon SB, Bruce NG, Grigg J, Hibberd PL, Kurmi OP, Lam KB, et al. 2014. Respiratory risks from household air pollution in low and middle income countries. Lancet Respir Med 2:823-860.
Gronlund CJ, Zanobetti A, Schwartz JD, Wellenius GA, O’Neill MS. 2014. Heat, heat waves, and hospital admissions among the elderly in the united states, 1992–2006. Environmental health perspectives 122:1187-1192.
Guo Y, Zeng H, Zheng R, Li S, Pereira G, Liu Q, et al. 2017. The burden of lung cancer mortality attributable to fine particles in china. Sci Total Environ 579:1460-1466.
Hassanvand MS, Naddafi K, Faridi S, Nabizadeh R, Sowlat MH, Momeniha F, et al. 2015. Characterization of pahs and metals in indoor/outdoor pm10/pm2. 5/pm1 in a retirement home and a school dormitory. Science of the Total Environment 527:100-110.
HEI. 2001. Health: Hei epidemiologic evidence. HEI Perspectives; Health Effects Institute: Boston, MA.
Henrotin J-B, Besancenot J-P, Bejot Y, Giroud M. 2007. Short-term effects of ozone air pollution on ischaemic stroke occurrence: A case-crossover analysis from a 10-year population-based study in dijon, france. Occupational and environmental medicine 64:439-445.
Hill M, Dimitroulopoulou C, Ashmore M, Batty K. 2001. Measurement and modelling of short-term variations in particle concentrations in uk homes. Indoor and Built Environment 10:132-137.
Hoek G, Brunekreef B, Goldbohm S, Fischer P, van den Brandt PA. 2002. Association between mortality and indicators of traffic-related air pollution in the netherlands: A cohort study. The lancet 360:1203-1209.
Hoffmann B, Luttmann-Gibson H, Cohen A, Zanobetti A, de Souza C, Foley C, et al. 2012. Opposing effects of particle pollution, ozone, and ambient temperature on arterial blood pressure. Environmental health perspectives 120:241-246.
Holgate S, Grigg J, Arshad H, Carslaw N, Cullinan P, Dimitroulopoulou S, et al. 2020. The inside story: Health effects of indoor air quality on children and young people. Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health,, London.
Hou J, Sun Y, Dai X, Liu J, Shen X, Tan H, et al. 2021. Associations of indoor carbon dioxide concentrations, air temperature, and humidity with perceived air quality and sick building syndrome symptoms in chinese homes. Indoor air.
Hsu JC, Tseng Y-C, Chang S-M, Lee Y-C, Lin P-C, Chu H-J. 2020. Health inequality: A longitudinal study on geographic variations in lung cancer incidence and mortality in taiwan. BMC public health 20:1-11.
Hu X, Yan M, He L, Qiu X, Zhang J, Zhang Y, et al. 2021. Associations between time-weighted personal air pollution exposure and amino acid metabolism in healthy adults. Environment international 156:106623.
Huang J, Li G, Qian X, Xu G, Zhao Y, Huang J, et al. 2018. The burden of ischemic heart disease related to ambient air pollution exposure in a coastal city in south china. Environmental research 164:255-261.
Huang K, Yang X, Liang F, Liu F, Li J, Xiao Q, et al. 2019. Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter and hypertension incidence in china. Hypertension 73:1195-1201.
Hwang J, Kwon J, Yi H, Bae H-J, Jang M, Kim N. 2020. Association between long-term exposure to air pollutants and cardiopulmonary mortality rates in south korea. BMC Public Health 20:1-8.
IPCC. 2021. Ar6 climate change 2021: The physical science basis.
IPCC T. 2007. Climate change 2007: Synthesis report. Contribution of working groups I, II and III to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change:95-212.
Isiugo K, Jandarov R, Cox J, Ryan P, Newman N, Grinshpun SA, et al. 2019. Indoor particulate matter and lung function in children. Sci Total Environ 663:408-417.
Jacob DJ, Winner DA. 2009. Effect of climate change on air quality. Atmospheric environment 43:51-63.
Janssen NA, Hoek G, Simic-Lawson M, Fischer P, Van Bree L, Ten Brink H, et al. 2011. Black carbon as an additional indicator of the adverse health effects of airborne particles compared with pm10 and pm2. 5. Environmental health perspectives 119:1691-1699.
Jerrett M, Burnett RT, Pope III CA, Ito K, Thurston G, Krewski D, et al. 2009. Long-term ozone exposure and mortality. New England Journal of Medicine 360:1085-1095.
Jie Y, Isa ZM, Jie X, Ismail NH. 2013. Asthma and asthma-related symptoms among adults of an acid rain-plagued city in southwest china: Prevalence and risk factors. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies 22.
Jung C-C, Hsia Y-F, Hsu N-Y, Wang Y-C, Su H-J. 2020. Indoor temperature and respiratory disease–related emergency department visits: A study of cumulative effects among older adults in taiwan.
Jung CC, Hsia YF, Hsu NY, Wang YC, Su HJ. 2020. Cumulative effect of indoor temperature on cardiovascular disease-related emergency department visits among older adults in taiwan. Sci Total Environ 731:6.
Jung EJ, Na W, Lee KE, Jang JY. 2019. Elderly mortality and exposure to fine particulate matter and ozone. J Korean Med Sci 34:e311.
Kalpana Balakrishnan SD, Tarun Gupta, R S Dhaliwal, Michael Brauer, Aaron J Cohen, Jeffrey D Stanaway, Gufran Beig, Tushar K Joshi, Ashutosh N Aggarwal, Yogesh Sabde, Harsiddha Sadhu, Joseph Frostad, Kate Causey, William Godwin, D K Shukla, G Anil Kumar, Chris M Varghese, Pallavi Muraleedharan, *Anurag Agrawal, *Ranjit M Anjana, *Anil Bhansali, *Deeksha Bhardwaj, *Katrin Burkart, *Kelly M Cercy, *Joy K Chakma, *Sourangsu Chowdhury, *D J Christopher, *Eliza Dutta, *Melissa Furtado, *Santu Ghosh, *Aloke G Ghoshal, *Scott D Glenn, *Rajeev Gupta, *Panniyammakal Jeemon, *Rajni Kant, *Surya Kant, *Tanvir Kaur, *Parvaiz A Koul, *Varsha Krish, *Bhargav Krishna, *Samantha L Larson, *Kishore K Madhipatla, *P A Mahesh, *Viswanathan Mohan, *Satinath Mukhopadhyay, *Parul Mutreja, *Nitish Naik, *Sanjeev Nair, *Grant Nguyen, *Christopher M Odell, *Jeyaraj D Pandian, *Dorairaj Prabhakaran, *Poornima Prabhakaran, *Ambuj Roy, *Sundeep Salvi, *Sankar Sambandam, *Deepika S Saraf, *Meenakshi Sharma, *Aakash Shrivastava, *Virendra Singh, *Nikhil Tandon, *Nihal J Thomas, *Anna Torre, *Denis Xavier, *Geetika Yadav, Sujeet Singh, Chander Shekhar, Randeep Guleria, Theo Vos, Rakhi Dandona, K Srinath Reddy, Stephen S Lim, Christopher J L Murray, S Venkatesh, Lalit Dandona. 2019. The impact of air pollution on deaths, disease burden, and life expectancy across the states of india: The global burden of disease study 2017. Lancet Planet Health 3:e26-e39.
Karambelas A, Holloway T, Kinney PL, Fiore AM, DeFries R, Kiesewetter G, et al. 2018. Urban versus rural health impacts attributable to pm2. 5 and o3 in northern india. Environmental Research Letters 13:064010.
Kazemiparkouhi F, Eum KD, Wang B, Manjourides J, Suh HH. 2019. Long-term ozone exposures and cause-specific mortality in a us medicare cohort. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol.
Khaniabadi YO, Hopke PK, Goudarzi G, Daryanoosh SM, Jourvand M, Basiri H. 2017. Cardiopulmonary mortality and copd attributed to ambient ozone. Environ Res 152:336-341.
Khilnani GC, Tiwari P. 2018. Air pollution in india and related adverse respiratory health effects: Past, present, and future directions. Curr Opin Pulm Med 24:108-116.
Kim IS, Yang PS, Lee J, Yu HT, Kim TH, Uhm JS, et al. 2020. Long-term fine particulate matter exposure and cardiovascular mortality in the general population: A nationwide cohort study. J Cardiol 75:549-558.
Kim S-Y, Kim E, Kim WJ. 2020. Health effects of ozone on respiratory diseases. Tuberculosis and Respiratory Diseases 83:S6-S11.
Klinmalee A, Srimongkol K, Kim Oanh NT. 2009. Indoor air pollution levels in public buildings in thailand and exposure assessment. Environ Monit Assess 156:581-594.
Kousa A, Oglesby L, Koistinen K, Künzli N, Jantunen M. 2002. Exposure chain of urban air pm2. 5—associations between ambient fixed site, residential outdoor, indoor, workplace and personal exposures in four european cities in the expolis-study. Atmospheric Environment 36:3031-3039.
Kulick ER, Wellenius GA, Boehme AK, Sacco RL, Elkind MS. 2018. Residential proximity to major roadways and risk of incident ischemic stroke in nomas (the northern manhattan study). Stroke 49:835-841.
Kuo N-W, Chiang H-C, Chiang C-M. 2008. Development and application of an integrated indoor air quality audit to an international hotel building in taiwan. Environmental monitoring and assessment 147:139-147.
Kyu HH, Abate D, Abate KH, Abay SM, Abbafati C, Abbasi N, et al. 2018. Global, regional, and national disability-adjusted life-years (dalys) for 359 diseases and injuries and healthy life expectancy (hale) for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2017: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2017. The Lancet 392:1859-1922.
Lacey FG, Henze DK, Lee CJ, van Donkelaar A, Martin RV. 2017. Transient climate and ambient health impacts due to national solid fuel cookstove emissions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 114:1269-1274.
Lancet T. 2018. Gbd 2017: A fragile world.
Landrigan PJ, Fuller R, Acosta NJ, Adeyi O, Arnold R, Baldé AB, et al. 2018. The lancet commission on pollution and health. The lancet 391:462-512.
Lee Y, Shindell DT, Faluvegi G, Wenig M, Lam Y, Ning Z, et al. 2014. Increase of ozone concentrations, its temperature sensitivity and the precursor factor in south china. Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology 66:23455.
Lefrançais E, Ortiz-Muñoz G, Caudrillier A, Mallavia B, Liu F, Sayah DM, et al. 2017. The lung is a site of platelet biogenesis and a reservoir for haematopoietic progenitors. Nature 544:105-109.
Lelieveld J, Klingmüller K, Pozzer A, Pöschl U, Fnais M, Daiber A, et al. 2019. Cardiovascular disease burden from ambient air pollution in europe reassessed using novel hazard ratio functions. European heart journal 40:1590-1596.
Liang F, Liu F, Huang K, Yang X, Li J, Xiao Q, et al. 2020. Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter and cardiovascular disease in china. J Am Coll Cardiol 75:707-717.
Liang L, Cai Y, Barratt B, Lyu B, Chan Q, Hansell AL, et al. 2019. Associations between daily air quality and hospitalisations for acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in beijing, 2013–17: An ecological analysis. The Lancet Planetary Health 3:e270-e279.
Liao K-M, Chen Y-C, Cheng K-C, Wang J-J, Ho C-H. 2018. Trends in intensive care unit admissions of copd patients from 2003 to 2013 in taiwan. International journal of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 13:2007.
Lim CC, Hayes RB, Ahn J, Shao Y, Silverman DT, Jones RR, et al. 2019. Long-term exposure to ozone and cause-specific mortality risk in the united states. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 200:1022-1031.
Lim CC, Hayes RB, Ahn J, Shao Y, Silverman DT, Jones RR, et al. 2019. Long-term exposure to ozone and cause-specific mortality risk in the united states. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine 200:1022-1031.
Lim S, Kim J, Kim T, Lee K, Yang W, Jun S, et al. 2012. Personal exposures to pm2. 5 and their relationships with microenvironmental concentrations. Atmospheric environment 47:407-412.
Lim SS, Vos T, Flaxman AD, Danaei G, Shibuya K, Adair-Rohani H, et al. 2012. A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990–2010: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2010. The lancet 380:2224-2260.
Lin YK, Sung FC, Honda Y, Chen YJ, Wang YC. 2020. Comparative assessments of mortality from and morbidity of circulatory diseases in association with extreme temperatures. Sci Total Environ 723:8.
Lindemann U, Stotz A, Beyer N, Oksa J, Skelton DA, Becker C, et al. 2017. Effect of indoor temperature on physical performance in older adults during days with normal temperature and heat waves. International journal of environmental research and public health 14:186.
Lippmann M, Ito K, Hwang J-S, Maciejczyk P, Chen L-C. 2006. Cardiovascular effects of nickel in ambient air. Environmental health perspectives 114:1662-1669.
Liu H, Li B-z, Chen L, Tan M, Ma X. Impacts of indoor temperature and velocity on human physiology in hot summer and cold winter climate in china. In: Proceedings of the Proceedings of Clima, 2007, 501-509.
Liu Y, Chen S, Xu J, Liu X, Wu Y, Zhou L, et al. 2018. The association between air pollution and outpatient and inpatient visits in shenzhen, china. International journal of environmental research and public health 15:178.
Lo W-C, Shie R-H, Chan C-C, Lin H-H. 2017. Burden of disease attributable to ambient fine particulate matter exposure in taiwan. Journal of the Formosan Medical Association 116:32-40.
Logue JM, Price PN, Sherman MH, Singer BC. 2012. A method to estimate the chronic health impact of air pollutants in us residences. Environmental health perspectives 120:216-222.
Lu C, Xu H, Meng W, Hou W, Zhang W, Shen G, et al. 2020. A novel model for regional indoor pm2. 5 quantification with both external and internal contributions included. Environment International 145:106124.
Martinelli N, Olivieri O, Girelli D. 2013. Air particulate matter and cardiovascular disease: A narrative review. European journal of internal medicine 24:295-302.
Matawle JL, Pervez S, Shrivastava A, Tiwari S, Pant P, Deb MK, et al. 2017. Pm 2.5 pollution from household solid fuel burning practices in central india: 1. Impact on indoor air quality and associated health risks. Environmental geochemistry and health 39:1045-1058.
Matthews KA, Crawford SL, Chae CU, Everson-Rose SA, Sowers MF, Sternfeld B, et al. 2009. Are changes in cardiovascular disease risk factors in midlife women due to chronological aging or to the menopausal transition? Journal of the American College of Cardiology 54:2366-2373.
Matz CJ, Stieb DM, Davis K, Egyed M, Rose A, Chou B, et al. 2014. Effects of age, season, gender and urban-rural status on time-activity: Canadian human activity pattern survey 2 (chaps 2). Int J Environ Res Public Health 11:2108-2124.
McCormack MC, Belli AJ, Waugh D, Matsui EC, Peng RD, Williams DAL, et al. 2016. Respiratory effects of indoor heat and the interaction with air pollution in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Annals of the American Thoracic Society 13:2125-2131.
McGrath J, Sheahan J, Dimitroulopoulou C, Ashmore M, Terry A, Byrne M. 2017. Pm exposure variations due to different time activity profile simulations within a single dwelling. Building and Environment 116:55-63.
Mendell MJ, Mirer AG, Cheung K, Tong M, Douwes J. 2011. Respiratory and allergic health effects of dampness, mold, and dampness-related agents: A review of the epidemiologic evidence. Environmental health perspectives 119:748-756.
Miller KA, Siscovick DS, Sheppard L, Shepherd K, Sullivan JH, Anderson GL, et al. 2007. Long-term exposure to air pollution and incidence of cardiovascular events in women. New England Journal of Medicine 356:447-458.
Miller MR. 2020. Oxidative stress and the cardiovascular effects of air pollution. Free Radical Biology and Medicine.
Mills G, Sharps K, Simpson D, Pleijel H, Broberg M, Uddling J, et al. 2018. Ozone pollution will compromise efforts to increase global wheat production. Global Change Biology 24:3560-3574.
Miri M, Alahabadi A, Ehrampush MH, Rad A, Lotfi MH, Sheikhha MH, et al. 2018. Mortality and morbidity due to exposure to ambient particulate matter. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 165:307-313.
Mo Z, Fu Q, Zhang L, Lyu D, Mao G, Wu L, et al. 2018. Acute effects of air pollution on respiratory disease mortalities and outpatients in southeastern china. Scientific reports 8:1-9.
Monks PS, Archibald A, Colette A, Cooper O, Coyle M, Derwent R, et al. 2015. Tropospheric ozone and its precursors from the urban to the global scale from air quality to short-lived climate forcer. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 15:8889-8973.
Mordukhovich I, Kloog I, Coull B, Koutrakis P, Vokonas P, Schwartz J. 2016. Association between particulate air pollution and qt interval duration in an elderly cohort. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass) 27:284.
Murray CJ, Ezzati M, Flaxman AD, Lim S, Lozano R, Michaud C, et al. 2012. Gbd 2010: Design, definitions, and metrics. The Lancet 380:2063-2066.
Mustafić H, Jabre P, Caussin C, Murad MH, Escolano S, Tafflet M, et al. 2012. Main air pollutants and myocardial infarction: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Jama 307:713-721.
Myers RH, Myers RH. 1990. Classical and modern regression with applications:Duxbury press Belmont, CA.
Nandan A, Siddiqui NA, Kumar P. 2020. Estimation of indoor air pollutant during photocopy/printing operation: A computational fluid dynamics (cfd)-based study. Environ Geochem Health.
Nayebare SR, Aburizaiza OS, Siddique A, Carpenter DO, Pope III CA, Mirza HM, et al. 2019. Fine particles exposure and cardiopulmonary morbidity in jeddah: A time-series analysis. Sci Total Environ 647:1314-1322.
Niu Z, Liu F, Yu H, Wu S, Xiang H. 2021. Association between exposure to ambient air pollution and hospital admission, incidence, and mortality of stroke: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis of more than 23 million participants. Environmental health and preventive medicine 26:1-14.
O'Leary C, Jones B, Dimitroulopoulou S, Hall IP. 2019. Setting the standard: The acceptability of kitchen ventilation for the english housing stock. Building and Environment 166:106417.
O'Neill BC, Oppenheimer M, Warren R, Hallegatte S, Kopp RE, Pörtner HO, et al. 2017. Ipcc reasons for concern regarding climate change risks. Nature Climate Change 7:28-37.
Oakes M, Baxter L, Long TC. 2014. Evaluating the application of multipollutant exposure metrics in air pollution health studies. Environment international 69:90-99.
Orru H, Ebi KL, Forsberg B. 2017. The interplay of climate change and air pollution on health. Curr Environ Health Rep 4:504-513.
Park SK, Tao Y, Meeker JD, Harlow SD, Mukherjee B. 2014. Environmental risk score as a new tool to examine multi-pollutants in epidemiologic research: An example from the nhanes study using serum lipid levels. PloS one 9:e98632.
Paulin LM, Gassett AJ, Alexis NE, Kirwa K, Kanner RE, Peters S, et al. 2020. Association of long-term ambient ozone exposure with respiratory morbidity in smokers. JAMA internal medicine 180:106-115.
Peters A, Dockery DW, Muller JE, Mittleman MA. 2001. Increased particulate air pollution and the triggering of myocardial infarction. Circulation 103:2810-2815.
Pinault LL, Weichenthal S, Crouse DL, Brauer M, Erickson A, van Donkelaar A, et al. 2017. Associations between fine particulate matter and mortality in the 2001 canadian census health and environment cohort. Environmental research 159:406-415.
Pope CA, Thun MJ, Namboodiri MM, Dockery DW, Evans JS, Speizer FE, et al. 1995. Particulate air pollution as a predictor of mortality in a prospective study of us adults. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine 151:669-674.
Pope III CA, Dockery DW. 1999. Epidemiology of particle effects. In: Air pollution and health:Elsevier, 673-705.
Pun VC, Kazemiparkouhi F, Manjourides J, Suh HH. 2017. Long-term pm2. 5 exposure and respiratory, cancer, and cardiovascular mortality in older us adults. American journal of epidemiology 186:961-969.
Qu F, Liu F, Zhang H, Chao L, Guan J, Li R, et al. 2019. The hospitalization attributable burden of acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease due to ambient air pollution in shijiazhuang, china. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 26:30866-30875.
Quang TN, He C, Morawska L, Knibbs LD. 2013. Influence of ventilation and filtration on indoor particle concentrations in urban office buildings. Atmospheric environment 79:41-52.
Rackes A, Waring MS. 2013. Modeling impacts of dynamic ventilation strategies on indoor air quality of offices in six us cities. Building and Environment 60:243-253.
Raza A, Dahlquist M, Lind T, Ljungman PL. 2018. Susceptibility to short-term ozone exposure and cardiovascular and respiratory mortality by previous hospitalizations. Environmental Health 17:37.
Revich B, Shaposhnikov D. 2008. Temperature-induced excess mortality in moscow, russia. International journal of biometeorology 52:367-374.
Rice MB, Ljungman PL, Wilker EH, Gold DR, Schwartz JD, Koutrakis P, et al. 2013. Short-term exposure to air pollution and lung function in the framingham heart study. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine 188:1351-1357.
Roberts S. 2006. A new model for investigating the mortality effects of multiple air pollutants in air pollution mortality time-series studies. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A 69:417-435.
Roberts S, Martin MA. 2006. Using supervised principal components analysis to assess multiple pollutant effects. Environmental health perspectives 114:1877-1882.
Robertson S, Miller MR. 2018. Ambient air pollution and thrombosis. Particle and fibre toxicology 15:1-16.
Rodopoulou S, Katsouyanni K, Lagiou P, Samoli E. 2018. Assessing the cumulative health effect following short term exposure to multiple pollutants: An evaluation of methodological approaches using simulations and real data. Environmental research 165:228-234.
Rovira J, Domingo JL, Schuhmacher M. 2020. Air quality, health impacts and burden of disease due to air pollution (pm10, pm2. 5, no2 and o3): Application of airq+ model to the camp de tarragona county (catalonia, spain). Science of The Total Environment 703:135538.
Rush B, McDermid RC, Celi LA, Walley KR, Russell JA, Boyd JH. 2017. Association between chronic exposure to air pollution and mortality in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Environmental pollution 224:352-356.
Sahu SK, Liu S, Liu S, Ding D, Xing J. 2021. Ozone pollution in china: Background and transboundary contributions to ozone concentration & related health effects across the country. Science of The Total Environment 761:144131.
Salin J, Salkinoja-Salonen M, Salin PJ, Nelo K, Holma T, Ohtonen P, et al. 2017. Building-related symptoms are linked to the in vitro toxicity of indoor dust and airborne microbial propagules in schools: A cross-sectional study. Environmental research 154:234-239.
Salis LCR, Abadie M, Wargocki P, Rode C. 2017. Towards the definition of indicators for assessment of indoor air quality and energy performance in low-energy residential buildings. Energy and buildings 152:492-502.
Salomon JA, Haagsma JA, Davis A, de Noordhout CM, Polinder S, Havelaar AH, et al. 2015. Disability weights for the global burden of disease 2013 study. The Lancet Global Health 3:e712-e723.
Salonen H, Salthammer T, Morawska L. 2018. Human exposure to ozone in school and office indoor environments. Environment international 119:503-514.
Satsangi PG, Yadav S, Pipal AS, Kumbhar N. 2014. Characteristics of trace metals in fine (pm2. 5) and inhalable (pm10) particles and its health risk assessment along with in-silico approach in indoor environment of india. Atmospheric Environment 92:384-393.
Schultz MG, Schröder S, Lyapina O, Cooper OR, Galbally I, Petropavlovskikh I, et al. 2017. Tropospheric ozone assessment report: Database and metrics data of global surface ozone observations. Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene 5.
Shah AS, Langrish JP, Nair H, McAllister DA, Hunter AL, Donaldson K, et al. 2013. Global association of air pollution and heart failure: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet 382:1039-1048.
Shah AS, Lee KK, McAllister DA, Hunter A, Nair H, Whiteley W, et al. 2015. Short term exposure to air pollution and stroke: Systematic review and meta-analysis. bmj 350.
Shamsipour M, Hassanvand MS, Gohari K, Yunesian M, Fotouhi A, Naddafi K, et al. 2019. National and sub-national exposure to ambient fine particulate matter (pm(2.5)) and its attributable burden of disease in iran from 1990 to 2016. Environ Pollut 255:113173.
Sharovsky R, César LAM, Ramires JAF. 2004. Temperature, air pollution, and mortality from myocardial infarction in sao paulo, brazil. Brazilian journal of medical and biological research 37:1651-1657.
Shen F, Ge X, Hu J, Nie D, Tian L, Chen M. 2017. Air pollution characteristics and health risks in henan province, china. Environ Res 156:625-634.
Shen J-H, Wang Y-S, Lin J-P, Wu S-H, Horng J-J. 2014. Improving the indoor air quality of respiratory type of medical facility by zeolite filtering. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 64:13-18.
Shi Y, Matsunaga T, Yamaguchi Y, Zhao A, Li Z, Gu X. 2018. Long-term trends and spatial patterns of pm2. 5-induced premature mortality in south and southeast asia from 1999 to 2014. Sci Total Environ 631:1504-1514.
Shin J, Choi J, Kim KJ. 2019. Association between long-term exposure of ambient air pollutants and cardiometabolic diseases: A 2012 korean community health survey. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases 29:144-151.
Śmiełowska M, Marć M, Zabiegała B. 2017. Indoor air quality in public utility environments—a review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 24:11166-11176.
Smith K, Woodward A, Campbell-Lendrum D, Chadee D, Honda Y, Liu Q, et al. 2014. Human health: Impacts, adaptation, and co-benefits. In: Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability part a: Global and sectoral aspects contribution of working group ii to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change:Cambridge University Press, 709-754.
Soca-Chafre G, Hernández-Pedro N, Aviles-Salas A, Versón CA, Sánchez KC, Cardona AF, et al. 2018. Targeted next generation sequencing identified a high frequency genetic mutated profile in wood smoke exposure-related lung adenocarcinoma patients. Oncotarget 9:30499.
Sofianopoulou E, Kaptoge S, Gräf S, Hadinnapola C, Treacy CM, Church C, et al. 2019. Traffic exposures, air pollution and outcomes in pulmonary arterial hypertension: A uk cohort study analysis. European Respiratory Journal 53.
Son J-Y, Bell ML, Lee J-T. 2014. The impact of heat, cold, and heat waves on hospital admissions in eight cities in korea. International journal of biometeorology 58:1893-1903.
Song C, He J, Wu L, Jin T, Chen X, Li R, et al. 2017. Health burden attributable to ambient pm2. 5 in china. Environmental pollution 223:575-586.
Sussan TE, Ingole V, Kim J-H, McCormick S, Negherbon J, Fallica J, et al. 2014. Source of biomass cooking fuel determines pulmonary response to household air pollution. American journal of respiratory cell and molecular biology 50:538-548.
Szyszkowicz M, Kousha T, Castner J, Dales R. 2018. Air pollution and emergency department visits for respiratory diseases: A multi-city case crossover study. Environmental research 163:263-269.
Tam A. 2017. Singapore hawker centers: Origins, identity, authenticity, and distinction. Gastronomica: The Journal of Critical Food Studies 17:44-55.
Tan YQ, Rashid SKA, Pan WC, Chen YC, Yu LE, Seow WJ. 2020. Association between microenvironment air quality and cardiovascular health outcomes. Sci Total Environ 716:137027.
Tian Y, Xiang X, Juan J, Song J, Cao Y, Huang C, et al. 2018. Short-term effects of ambient fine particulate matter pollution on hospital visits for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in beijing, china. Environmental Health 17:21.
Tonne C, Wilkinson P. 2013. Long-term exposure to air pollution is associated with survival following acute coronary syndrome. European heart journal 34:1306-1311.
Turner MC, Jerrett M, Pope III CA, Krewski D, Gapstur SM, Diver WR, et al. 2016. Long-term ozone exposure and mortality in a large prospective study. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine 193:1134-1142.
Umishio W, Ikaga T, Kario K, Fujino Y, Hoshi T, Ando S, et al. 2019. Cross-sectional analysis of the relationship between home blood pressure and indoor temperature in winter: A nationwide smart wellness housing survey in japan. Hypertension 74:756-766.
Vedal S, Brauer M, White R, Petkau J. 2003. Air pollution and daily mortality in a city with low levels of pollution. Environmental health perspectives 111:45-52.
Viehmann A, Hertel S, Fuks K, Eisele L, Moebus S, Möhlenkamp S, et al. 2015. Long-term residential exposure to urban air pollution, and repeated measures of systemic blood markers of inflammation and coagulation. Occupational and environmental medicine 72:656-663.
Vilcassim MR, Thurston GD, Chen L-C, Lim CC, Saunders E, Yao Y, et al. 2019. Exposure to air pollution is associated with adverse cardiopulmonary health effects in international travellers. Journal of travel medicine 26:taz032.
Vos T, Flaxman AD, Naghavi M, Lozano R, Michaud C, Ezzati M, et al. 2012. Years lived with disability (ylds) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990–2010: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2010. The lancet 380:2163-2196.
Vos T, Lim SS, Abbafati C, Abbas KM, Abbasi M, Abbasifard M, et al. 2020. Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2019. The Lancet 396:1204-1222.
Walker IS, Sherman MH. 2013. Effect of ventilation strategies on residential ozone levels. Building and environment 59:456-465.
Wang H, Naghavi M, Allen C, Barber RM, Bhutta ZA, Carter A, et al. 2016. Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980–2015: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2015. The lancet 388:1459-1544.
Wang Z, Zhou Y, Zhang Y, Huang X, Duan X, Chen D, et al. 2021. Association of change in air quality with hospital admission for acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in guangdong, china: A province-wide ecological study. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 208:111590.
Waring M, Siegel JA. 2008. Particle loading rates for hvac filters, heat exchangers, and ducts. Indoor air 18:209-224.
Wellenius GA, Schwartz J, Mittleman MA. 2005. Air pollution and hospital admissions for ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke among medicare beneficiaries. Stroke 36:2549-2553.
WHO. 2002. The world health report 2002: Reducing risks, promoting healthy life:World Health Organization.
WHO. 2010. Who guidelines for indoor air quality: Selected pollutants.
WHO. 2015. Burden of disease from household air pollution for 2012: Summary of results. 2014. World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland.
WHO. 2016. Ambient air pollution: A global assessment of exposure and burden of disease.
WHO. 2018a. Who global conference on air pollution and health.
WHO. 2018b. Air pollution. Available: http://www.who.int/airpollution/en/.
WHO. 2019. State of global air 2019: A special report on global exposure to air pollution and its disease burden. Health Effects Institute, Boston, MA.
WHO. 2020a. Chronic respiratory diseases.
WHO. 2020b. Global alliance against chronic respiratory disease—about gard.
Wilson R, Fleming Z, Monks P, Clain G, Henne S, Konovalov I, et al. 2012. Have primary emission reduction measures reduced ozone across europe? An analysis of european rural background ozone trends 1996-2005.
Wu C-D, Zeng Y-T, Lung S-CC. 2018. A hybrid kriging/land-use regression model to assess pm2. 5 spatial-temporal variability. Science of the Total Environment 645:1456-1464.
Yin P, Brauer M, Cohen A, Burnett RT, Liu J, Liu Y, et al. 2017. Long-term fine particulate matter exposure and nonaccidental and cause-specific mortality in a large national cohort of chinese men. Environmental health perspectives 125:117002.
Yin P, Chen R, Wang L, Meng X, Liu C, Niu Y, et al. 2017. Ambient ozone pollution and daily mortality: A nationwide study in 272 chinese cities. Environ Health Perspect 125:117006.
Yoon H-J, Xu S, Tourassi G. Predicting lung cancer incidence from air pollution exposures using shapelet-based time series analysis. In: Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE-EMBS International Conference on Biomedical and Health Informatics (BHI), 2016, IEEE, 565-568.
Yorifuji T, Suzuki E, Kashima S. 2014. Cardiovascular emergency hospital visits and hourly changes in air pollution. Stroke 45:1264-1268.
Zanobetti A, Franklin M, Koutrakis P, Schwartz J. 2009. Fine particulate air pollution and its components in association with cause-specific emergency admissions. Environmental Health 8:58.
Zhang JJ, Wei Y, Fang Z. 2019. Ozone pollution: A major health hazard worldwide. Frontiers in immunology 10:2518.
Zhang Z, Guo C, Lau AK, Chan T-C, Chuang YC, Lin C, et al. 2018. Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter, blood pressure, and incident hypertension in taiwanese adults. Environmental health perspectives 126:017008.
Zhao Q, Guo Y, Ye T, Gasparrini A, Tong S, Overcenco A, et al. 2021. Global, regional, and national burden of mortality associated with non-optimal ambient temperatures from 2000 to 2019: A three-stage modelling study. The Lancet Planetary Health 5:e415-e425.
Zhou M, Wang H, Zeng X, Yin P, Zhu J, Chen W, et al. 2019. Mortality, morbidity, and risk factors in china and its provinces, 1990-2017: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2017. Lancet 394:1145-1158.
Zu K, Liu X, Shi L, Tao G, Loftus CT, Lange S, et al. 2017. Concentration-response of short-term ozone exposure and hospital admissions for asthma in texas. Environment international 104:139-145.
中央健康保險署. 2019. 全民健康保險簡介.
行政院主計處. 2000. 國人時間運用概況.
林民浩, 楊安琪, 溫在弘. 2011. 利用地區差異與人口學特徵評估全民健保資料庫人口居住地變項之推估原則. 臺灣衛誌 30:347-361.
林宛萓. 2019. 發展室內 pm2 5 濃度推估模式-以台南住家為例.
林政宏. 2017. 臺灣住宅室內外溫度相關性與差異之分布探討.
勞動部. 2019a. 勞動部-各年度就業者平均每年工時.
勞動部. 2019b. 勞動部-各年度工業及服務業員工工時.
楊銘欽. 2013. 我國主要非傳染性疾病之疾病負擔及經濟衝擊評估計畫.
楊銘欽. 2014. 我國主要非傳染性疾病之疾病負擔及經濟衝擊評估計畫.
溫福星. 2013. 社會科學研究中使用迴歸分析的五個重要觀念. 管理學報 30:169-190.
衛福部. 2014. 全國主要死因 - 以縣市劃分
衛福部. 2020a. 109年死因統計結果分析.
衛福部. 2020b. 108年死因統計結果分析.