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研究生：	張淑鈞 Chang, Shu-Chun
論文名稱：	與Elves關聯的光學與電波輻射及其應用 Elves-associated Electromagnetic Emissions and their Implications
指導教授：	許瑞榮 Hsu, Rue-Ron
共同指導教授:	蘇漢宗 Su, Han-Tzong
學位類別：	博士 Doctor
系所名稱：	理學院 - 物理學系 Department of Physics
論文出版年：	2015
畢業學年度：	103
語文別：	英文
論文頁數：	126
中文關鍵詞：	高空短暫發光現象、閃電、天電訊號、電子濃度增加
外文關鍵詞：	Transient Luminous Events, Lightning, Sferics, electron enhancement.
相關次數：	點閱：96 下載：9
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過去國內外的地面觀測結果顯示Sprite（紅色精靈）是發生率最高的高空短暫發光現象（Transient Luminous Events; TLEs），然而從ISUAL開始進行觀測之後，發現全球分佈以elves（淘氣精靈）發生率最高。elves的型態為甜甜圈狀與盤狀，與閃電發生有密切關係，因此elves被認為是由閃電所輻射的電磁波所引發的。由於elve和閃電幾乎同時發生，因此觀測上，除了閃電發生在地平線後的事件之外，elves的光學影像及光度常常受到閃電的汙染。然而ISUAL為臨邊觀測（limb viewing），因此可紀錄閃電在地平線後的elves事件。先前關於ISUAL elve的研究指出，elve的發光主要來自被激發的氮氣分子（N2），包含N2 Lyman-Birge Hopfield（N2 LBH）和N2 first positive（N21P）等波段，且N2 1P的亮度和閃電峰值電流有關。
 在ISUAL 記錄的閃電事件中，有一些具有遠紫外光（Far Ultraviolet; FUV）訊號，但是沒有伴隨的TLEs，我們猜測這些遠紫外光訊號可能來自於閃電或是影像中看不見的TLE，稱為“mystic FUV events”。經由計算閃電可能的遠紫外光輻射強度以及考慮大氣吸收後，已排除閃電的可能性；而由ISUAL的光譜光度資料訊號，發現mystic FUV events其遠紫外光訊號與閃電訊號峰值的時間間隔相差小於1 毫秒，與elves特性相似，分析elves在影像中的亮度以及FUV的強度後，發現兩者間呈線性關係，因此從elves的FUV強度也可對應到閃電峰值電流強度(SP1-Ip)。除此之外，mystic FUV events其SP1強度大約分布在104 photon/cm2以下，然而elves的SP1訊號強度可達6×104 photon/cm2，因此我們認為mystic FUV events是強度較弱的淘氣精靈所貢獻的。
 從2009年開始，超低頻(ULF)和甚低頻(VLF)無線電波偵測站陸續被建構，2010年8月之後，兩個測站同步紀錄資料並提供穩定的資料。我們進一步比對ISUAL在2011到2012年所紀錄距離臺灣1500公里的elves事件，藉由分析相對應的閃電電波(sferics)訊號強度，可獲得sferics傳播時的衰減率。結果顯示，VLF磁場訊號強度對距離的衰減率為-1.207 ，而ULF訊號強度對距離的衰減率為-0.871。
 除此之外，2010年8月時，地面光學觀測系統紀錄到72個高空短暫發光現象，除了光學影像，閃電的電波訊號也有被ULF和VLF測站紀錄到。將ULF 和VLF訊號強度歸一至500公里處的強度時，發現對應不同TLE的閃電，他們的ULF和VLF訊號強度的比例不同。其中Halo-producing lightning的ULF/VLF ratio為elve-producing lightning的三倍左右，然而雖然halo-producing lightning的ULF/VLF ratio和halo-sprite-producing lightning相近，但是halo-sprite lightning的ULF訊號較強。因此，我們可以從ULF/VLF peak ratio或是ULF和VLF的強度來辨別TLEs。除此之外，比較觀測和模擬的ULF和VLF訊號強度比例，發現halo-producing lightning的放電時間（dtstroke）大於300 μs ，而elve-producing lightning的放電時間在100-200 μs。
 藉由分析ISUAL 2011-2012地平線後的elve事件，發現SP1-Ip大於~150 kA有相對應的氮氣離子（N2+1N(0,0)）光學訊號，也就是有因為游離而產生的電子濃度增加現象。在這些事件中，其中SP1-Ip最強的是~300 kA，藉由elve model估計最大可使電子濃度增加~250%。在這樣的環境下，若後續閃電強度與前一個相同，所產生的elve其上半部亮度減少，下半部亮度增加。除此之外，比對ISUAL elve事件和量測到的日本JJI VLF訊號擾動，發現SP1-Ip大於~150kA的elve事件有相對應的振幅擾動，因此VLF電波訊號對於局部的電子濃度變化較為敏感。

Before ISUAL (Imager of Sprite and Upper Atmospheric Lightning) starts to carry out routine space-borne observations, sprite is often noted to be the most frequently observed species of TLEs (Transient Luminous Events). Since then, the ISUAL global survey data unequivocally demonstrate that elves actually are the most abundant species of TLEs. It has been proposed that the mechanism which generates elves is the electromagnetic pulse launched by intense lightning, due to their apparent donut shapes. The proximity between elves and the causative lightning renders the spectrophotometer observations of the elve optical emissions are always contaminated by the lightning emissions except for the event triggered by lightning located behind the Earth limb. For this type of behind the limb events, the parent lightning emissions are blocked by the solid earth and thus do not contribute to the data recorded by the ISUAL sensors. Previous studies had also shown the existence of the FUV (N2 LBH) emissions in elves as well as the existence of a tight correlation between the elve N2 1P emission intensity and the lightning peak current.
 Among the ISUAL recorded elves, there is a special subset of events that contains no discernible transient luminous events (TLEs) in the imager frames except for the bright lightning; however, they do possess a significant associated far ultraviolet (FUV) signal. These events are termed as the “mystic FUV events” or simply the FUV events. After factoring in the atmospheric attenuation, the lightning FUV emission was found to be completely absorbed by the atmosphere hence was extremely unlikely to be detected by the ISUAL sensors at an altitude of 891 km. The FUV emission of the FUV events closely follows the lightning OI emission within 1 ms, similar to the optical characteristics of a typical elve. By analyzing the imager-N2 1P brightness of the elves and their FUV intensity, a linear correlation was found. Thus, the FUV emission intensity of elves can be used to infer the lightning peak current. The intensity of FUV events also ranks among the dimmest elves and is less than 104 photon/cm2. Combining all the information, the FUV events finally are identified as dim elves that eluded the detection of the ISUAL imager.
 Since 2009, the NCKU team has constructed and continuously operated a ultra-low-frequency (ULF) and a very-low-frequency (VLF) radio band recording stations, to assist the operation of the ISUAL experiment. After the late August of 2010, both stations start to run simultaneously and provide good data. Through analyzing the sferics associated with ISUAL elves that occurred within 1500 km of Taiwan during 2011 and 2012, the attenuations of ULF and VLF sferics in the Earth cavity are obtained. Amplitudes of the ULF and the VLF sferics are found to vary as D-0.871 and D-1.207, respectively; where D is the source distance from the sferic stations.
 While observing from the southern tip of Taiwan on 2 August 2010, a thunderstorm near Luzon Island-Philippines about 500 km away was found to produce 72 transient luminous events. Besides optical images, ULF and VLF sferics of lightning from this thunderstorm were also recorded. After normalizing the sferics from the 2 August 2010 storm to a 500 km distance source, the ratio of the peak ULF and the VLF magnetic fields is found to be distinct for different types of TLE-producing lightning. The ratio for the halo-producing lightning is nearly three times that of the elve-producing lightning, but it is comparable to that of the halo-sprite-producing lightning; although the ULF strength for the halo-sprite lightning is significantly larger than that for the halo lightning. Therefore, it is possible to distinguish between the TLE-types using the ULF to VLF peak ratio or the strength of ULF/VLF band emissions of the parent lightning. Through comparing the simulated and the observed lightning radiation fields, the best fit for the lightning discharge time (dt_stroke) was found to be larger than 300 μs for the halo-producing lightning. For elve-producing lightning, the inferred lightning discharge time is about 100-200 μs.
 From analyzing the behind-the-limb elves that were recorded by ISAUL during 2011-2012, the elves generated by lightning with a SP1-inferred peak current (SP1-Ip) greater than ~150 kA are found to be associated with detectable N2+1N(0,0) emissions, which are also referred as the electron density enhancement. In this dataset, the most intense elve was generated by lightning with ~300 kA. Such a lightning will cause a maximum electron density enhancement of ~250 %. Under the assumption that the local electron density can be enhanced by the preceding elve, the N2 1P and N2 LBH photon emission of follow-up elve which generated by the same lightning show a significant decrease in the brightness for the upper part and a significant increase for the lower part in comparison with the preceding elve. Also, through analyzing the ISUAL elve and the amplitude of the Japan JJI VLF transmitter signals, elve generated by lightning with a peak current greater than ~150 kA is found to produce an amplitude change in the transmitter’s VLF signals. We demonstrate that the VLF signals is sensitive to the local electron density changes that they transverse. Therefore, the changes in the VLF signals from transmitters can be used to infer the electron density enhancement due to elves or other types of TLEs.

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1 Overview of Thunderstorm Electricity 1
1.1 Electrical Structure of Lightning-producing Clouds 1
1.2 Electric Discharges from Thunderstorms 2
2 Overview of Transient Luminous Events 5
2.1 Sprites 6
2.2 Elves 7
2.3 Halo 8
2.4 Jets 9
3 Middle Atmosphere 9
4 Scope of This work 10
Chapter 2 The Instrument 11
1 ISUAL Payload on the FORMOSAT-2 11
1.1 Imager 11
1.2 Spectrophotometer	12
1.3 Array Photometer 16
2 Sferics and Radio Signal Recording Systems 17
3 Ground TLE optical detecting system 18
Chapter 3 ISUAL FUV Emission 19
1 Overview 19
2 Lightning FUV Emissions and the Atmospheric Absorption 21
3 FUV Emissions from Dim Elves 24
4 Under-counted Elves in the ISUAL Imager Survey 30
5 Multi-elves Events 34
6 Conclusion 35
Chapter 4 Modeling the Optical Emissions of Elves 36
1 Coordinate System and Current distribution	36
2 The Electromagnetic Field from Cloud-to-ground Lightning 39
3 The Optical Emission Generated by the Lightning Radiation 43
4 Results 49
Chapter 5 Characteristics of TLE-producing Lightning 52
1 The Attenuation of ULF and ELF/VLF sferics in the Earth’s Cavity 52
1.1 The Datasets 53
1.2 The SP1-inferred Lightning Peak Currents 54
1.3 Results 55
2 The Lightning Electromagnetic Field Intensity in the ULF and VLF bands 60
2.1 The Datasets 60
2.2 ULF and filered-VLF Strengths of the TLE-producing Lightning 63
2.3 ULF and VLF Signals of the TLE-producing Lightning 66
3 The Physical Meaning of the ULF/ VLF Ratio 78
4 Conclusion 83
Chapter 6 The Elve Associated Electron Density Enhancement and VLF Perturbations 85
1 Electron Enhancement Associated with Elves	85
1.1 Electron Enhancement Determined from the N<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup> 1N(0,0) Optical Emissions 85
2 Brightness of the Follow-up Elve 89
3 Radio Waves Perturbation Associated with Elves 93
3.1 The Data 93
3.2 The Perturbations Associated with TLEs 95
3.3 The Recovery Time 102
Chapter 7 Summary and Future Work 111
1 Summary 111
1.1 The ISUAL FUV Emission 111
1.2 The Characteristics of TLE-producing Lightning 112
1.3 Elve-associated Electron Enhancement 113
2 Suggestions for Future Work	114
References 116

                                    

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