本論文聚焦於跨世紀之現代埃及伊斯蘭神學家兼思想家拉戌德･理達(Rashid Rida, 1865-1935)的改革理念。有別於一般學界的認知，僅將理達視為穆罕默德･阿布都(Muhammad Abduh, 1849-1905)理念的追隨者，而忽略理達理念的原創性，或將理達所倡導的現代伊斯蘭復興改革理念視為現代伊斯蘭世界才出現的特有現象，而完全忽視了伊斯蘭復興改革思潮乃伊斯蘭內部歷史傳統，及其對現代伊斯蘭復興改革思潮的影響。本研究將深入檢視理達改革理念之內涵，並進一步分析其理念與先前重要改革者在理念上之延續性與創新之處，以及其理念與其他當代思潮間之關聯性。本研究主張對理達復興改革理念理解，實為伊斯蘭復興改革歷史傳統發展脈絡的產物；儘管如此，其理念卻與其他先前近現代改革者的理念不盡相同。基於理達改革理念中此種延續與創新二元並存的特徵，其理念不僅影響整個阿拉伯世界，甚至對阿拉伯世界外的伊斯蘭社群亦產生重要影響，特別是所謂原教旨主義（Salafism）的發展與實踐。透過上述對理達理念的綜合性分析，期能梳理出一個清晰的現代伊斯蘭復興改革思想之歷史脈絡，並藉此闡明現代伊斯蘭復興改革思潮乃伊斯蘭的固有長遠傳統，絕非現代伊斯蘭世界特有的現象。

關鍵字: 伊斯蘭、復興與改革、原教旨主義(Salafism)、拉戌德･理達(Rashid Rida)、阿拉伯世界

Summary
This thesis examines the evolution of Islamic revivalist and reformist traditions from the ninth to twentieth centuries as a background to studying Rashid Rida's reform ideas, an Islamic theologian and thinker in the modern Arab world. This study argues that Rashid Rida's reformist thought is best understood as a product of and a departure from preceding trends in the pre-modern era of Islamic reformism. Due to the originality of his reformist thought, Rashid Rida's ideology has significantly impacted the Arab world and has raised powerful echoes in the global Islamic community. Moreover, he was among the influential figures of inspiration behind the development and practice of so-called Salafism. This study thoroughly explores the architecture of Rashid Rida's thought, which this investigation will compare with the past reformists and the interrelation with those current in his milieu to clarify the historical context of modern Islamic reformism and its trends.

Key Words: Arab world, Islam, Rashid Rida, Salafism, Tajdid and Islah.

一、 理達著作
Rida, Muhammad Rashid and Muhammad Abduh. Tafsir al-Fatihah. Cairo: al Manar,
1905.
Rida, Muhammad Rashid. “Al-‘Amal bi al-Siyasah wa al-Qawanin.” Al-Manar 14,
no. 10 (1911): 740–741.
———. “Al-Ahzab fi Misr.” Al-Manar 10 (1907): 771.
———. “Al-Asilah al-Diniyyah.” Al-Manar 4 (1901): 259.
———. “Al-Awliya’ wa al-Kafa’h fi al-Azwaj.” Al-Manar 7 (1904): 381–384.
———. “Al-Azimah wa Tarbiyah al-Aradah.” Al-Manar 15, no. 8 (1912): 584–586.
———. “Al-Da‘wah ila al-Ahtifalah bi al-Sirah al-Muhammadiyyah.” Al-Manar
32, no. 4 (1932): 281–282.
———. “Al-Duktur Shibli Shumayal.” Al-Manar 19 (1916): 625–626.
———. “Al-Haq fi Ujud wa Sunna al-Kaun.” Al-Manar 9 (1906): 54–55.
———. “Al-Ijtihad Wa Al-Wihdat Al-Islamiyyah.” Al-Manar 4 (1901): 210–215；
216；286–287.
———. “Al-Islah al-Wahhabi wa Maqawamah Tarak Lahu.” Al-Manar 27, no. 1
(1926): 4–5.
———. “Al-Istiqlal, wa al-Ta‘awana ‘ala al-A’mal.” Al-Manar 15, no. 1 (1912):
15.
———. “Al-Jamiah al-Islamiyah wa al-Afghani wa Jami’iyah al-Itihad wa al-Tarqi.” Al-Manar 15 (1912): 137.
———. “Al-Jara’d wa al-Ahzab bi Misr.” Al-Manar 17 (1914): 69–70.
———. “Al-Jinsiyyah wa al-Din al-Islamin.” Al-Manar 2 (1899): 322–323.
———. “Al-Juyush al-Gharbiyyah al-M‘anawiyyah fi al-Futuhat al-Sharqiyyah.” Al-Manar 1 (1898): 299.
———. Al-Khilafa aw al-Imama al-Uzma. Cairo: Matba’at al-Manar bi-Misr, 1923.
———. “Al-Madrasatani al-Rasiyani bi Tarablus al-Sham.” Al-Manar 1 (1989): 898–899.
———. Al-Manar wa Al-Azhar. Cairo: Matba’at al-Manar, 1934.
———. “Al-Mufti wa al-Ifta’ fi al-Shari‘a.” Al-Manar 6 (1904): 891.
———. “Al-Muhawarat bayna al-Muslih wa al-Muqallid.” Al-Manar 4 (1901): 216.
———. “Al-Muhawarat bayna al-Muslih wa al-Muqallid.” Al-Manar 4 (1902): 859；866.
———. “Al-Murshdun wa al-Murabb awu al-Mutasawufa wa al-Sufiyyun.” Al-Manar 1, no. 37 (1898): 722–729.
———. “Al-Muslimun. Asbab Saadatihim wa Shaqauhum.” Al-Manar 1 (1898): 586–587.
———. “Al-Qawa‘d al-Lati Yajib Bina’ Al-Islah ‘alaiha.” Al-Manar 22, no. 3 (1921): 184.
———. “Al-Rijal wa al-Nisa’.” Al-Manar 4 (1904): 485–488.
———. “Al-Sahafa wa Kaifiya Nash’t al-Muayyad wa Dhur Sahibhi.” Al-Manar 16 (1913): 875.
———. “Al-Shak fi Ujud al-Masih wa Homerus wa Majnun Laila.” Al-Manar 28, no. 8 (1927): 581–582.
———. “Al-Ta‘lim alladi Tartaqi bihi al-Ummah.” Al-Manar 5 (1902): 72–73.
———. “Al-Tajdid wa al-Tajaddud wa al-Mujaddidun.” Al-Manar 31, no. 1 (1931): 770–775.
———. “Al-Talfiq wa al-Wihdat al-Islamiyyah.” Al-Manar 4 (1902): 859.
———. “Al-Taqlid wa al-Talfiq wa al-Ijma’.” Al-Manar 4 (1901): 369.
———. “Al-Taqlid wa al-Wihda al-Islamiyyah.” Al-Manar 4 (1902): 861.
———. “Al-Tarbiya wa Wajh al-Hajah ilayha wa Taqasimiha.” Al-Manar 15, no. 8 (1912): 567–586.
———. “Al-Tarbiyah wa al-Ta‘lim.” Al-Manar 1 (1898): 56–61.
———. “Al-Tarbiyyah al-Hadithah.” Al-Manar 7 (1904): 620–622.
———. “Al-‘Ulum wa al-Funun.” Al-Manar 14, no. 11 (1911): 801.
———. Al-Wahy al-Muhammadi. Cairo: Jumhuriyat Misr al-ʻArabiyah, Wizarat al-Awqaf, al-Majlis al-Aʻla lil-Shuʼun al-Islamiyah, 2000.
———. “Amham al-Jam‘iyaah al-Khairiyyah wa Jama’h al-Da‘wah bi al-Siyasiyyah.” Al-Manar 15, no. 12 (1912): 925.
———. “Bab al-Tarbiyah wa al-Ta‘lim.” Al-Manar 2, no. 1 (1899): 14–16.
———. “Fain al-Balqan wa Arminiya Min Athar T‘asib Uruba.” Al-Manar 1 (1898): 511.
———. “Fatihah al-Sanah al-Tasi’a al-‘Asharah.” Al-Manar 19 (1916): 8.
———. “Fatihah al-Sanah al-Thaniyah al-’Asharah.” Al-Manar 12 (1909).
———. “Fatihah al-Sanah al-Ulah al-Manar.” Al-Manar 1 (1898): 9；11–12；13.
———. “Fatwa al-Manar: al-Tabshir wa al-Mubashirun fi Nadhar al-Muslimin.” Al-Manar 25, no. 3 (1924): 188–194.
———. “Fi Jama‘ah Al-Da‘wah wa Al-Irshad.” Al-Manar 14, no. 3 (1911): 239–240.
———. “Hadmu Uruba Li-l Jami’ah Islamiyyah bi-l Jami‘ah al-Jinsiyyah.” Al-Manar 14 (1911): 844.
———. “Hal Hukumat al-Muslimin wa Dauluhum.” Al-Manar 1, no. 40 (1898): 798–799.
———. “Hal Yuqal ana Ibn Taymiyyah A‘alm min al-Aimah al-Arb‘ah.” Al-Manar 28, no. 6 (1927): 423–424.
———. “Haqiqah al-Tasawwuf wa Makanah min al-Shari‘a.” Al-Manar 22, no. 3 (1921): 178.
———. “Hitab Sahib Al-Manar: ‘ala Dulab al-Kuliyah al-Amrikaniyah al-Muslimin fi Beirut.” Al-Manar 12, no. 1 (1909): 16–26.
———. Huquq al-Nisa fi al-Islam: Nida’ lil al-Jins al-Latif. Cairo: Matba`at al-Manar, 1932.
———. “Iftah Madrasah al-Da‘wah wa al-Irshad.” Al-Manar 15, no. 2 (1912): 226.
———. “Ijitima‘ al-Talamidhah wa Intihar Hum.” Al-Manar 7 (1904): 358.
———. “Ikhtiyar al-Mu‘allimin.” Al-Manar 2 (1899): 56–60.
———. “‘Ilaj al-Muslimin wa ‘Amal al-Da‘wah wa al-Irshad.” Al-Manar 15, no. 12 (1912): 924.
———. “Intiqad Muhammad Farid Wajdi.” Al-Manar 10, no. 6 (1907): 459.
———. “Iqtirah Ibdal al-Awqf al-Ahliyah.” Al-Manar 29, no. 1 (1928): 75–78.
———. “Iqtirah Jami‘iyahh Diniyyah Tawahhud al-Muslimin.” Al-Manar 1, no. 39 (1898): 766.
———. “Ishtirad al-Wali fi al-Nikah.” Al-Manar 7 (1904): 462.
———. “Istigalat al-Lord Krumr wa Taqrirhu.” Al-Manar 10 (1907): 159.
———. “Istiqlal al-Hukumah.” Al-Manar 7 (1904): 358.
———. “Jawab al-Manar.” Al-Manar 8 (1905).
———. “Jurji Bik Zaidain.” Al-Manar 17, no. 8 (1914): 638–640.
———. “Kalimah al-Hijab.” Al-Manar 2 (1899): 371.
———. “Kalimah al-Imam Ahmad fi al-Tafsir al-Mathur wa Kalimah Ibn Taymiyyah.” Al-Manar 28, no. 9 (1927): 648.
———. “Karamah al-Awliya.” Al-Manar 2, no. 26 (1899): 401–406.
———. “Khilafa al-Nabwah wa al-Malik.” Al-Manar 24, no. 9 (1923): 701.
———. “Khutbat Iftitah al-Ijtima‘ al-Sanawi al-Jami‘ah al-Da‘wah wa al-Irshad.” Al-Manar 15, no. 12 (1912): 921–923.
———. “Ma fi al-Tafasir min al-Shawakhil ‘an Hidayah al-Quran.” Al-Manar 28, no. 9 (1927): 647.
———. “Madrasah al-Tabshir al-Islami.” Al-Manar 14, no. 2 (1911): 121–134.
———. “Madrash al-Shurbaji.” Al-Manar 6 (1903): 151–153.
———. “Maliyah Jama‘h al-Da‘wah wa Rihlah Wakiliha ila al-Hind.” Al-Manar 15, no. 12 (1912): 928.
———. “Manafi’ al-Urubi‘in wa Madarhum.” Al-Manar 10, no. 5 (1907): 342.
———. “Manhaj al-Ustaz al-Imam fi al-Tarbiyyah wa al-Ta‘lim.” Al-Manar 28 (1927): 588.
———. “Mas’lah al-Nisa’.” Al-Manar 5 (1902): 882.
———. “Maui‘tah li al-Muslimin.” Al-Manar 7 (1904): 51–52.
———. “Mnafia‘ al-Urubiin wa Madar hum―al-Istibdad.” Al-Manar 10 (1907): 282–283.
———. “Mu‘tamr Jami‘iyyah al-Khilafa al-Mutadhar.” Al-Manar 27, no. 8 (1926): 638.
———. Muhawarat al-Muslih wa al-Muqallid wa al-Wihdah al-Islamiyah. Cairo: Matbaʻat Majallat al-Manar al-Islamiyah, 1906.
———. “Mujmal al-Ahwal al-Siyasiyyah.” Al-Manar 1 (1898): 46–48.
———. “Mukhalafah Nas al-Quran al-Qata‘i Kufar Kakufr Kamali Turkiyyah.” Al-Manar 28, no. 8 (1927): 581.
———. “Muqaddimah Kitab bi Sir al-Islam wa Usul al-Tashri‘a al-‘Am.” Al-Manar 29, no. 1 (1928): 66–67.
———. “Nida’ ‘Amm li al-Ihya’ Dhikra Yawm al-Nabi.” Al-Manar 32, no. 3 (1932): 190–192.
———. “Nizam Dar al-Da‘wah wa al-Irshad.” Al-Manar 14, no. 10 (1911): 786–788.
———. “Nizham al-Khilafah al-Munasib li Hadha al-‘Asir.” Al-Manar 27, no. 2 (1926): 142.
———. “Qanun Jami‘yat al-Rabitah al-Sharqiyah.” Al-Manar 23 (1922): 223.
———. “Rawabad al-Jinsiyah wa al-Hayah al-Mlyah.” Al-Manar 8 (1905): 786–787.
———. “Sual wa Jawab: fi al-Tawasul wa Al-Isti‘anh bi al-Amuwat.” Al-Manar 1, no. 4 (1898): 77.
———. “Sultah al-Qadi wa al-Mufti wa Shaikh al-Islam.” Al-Manar 24 (1923): 350.
———. “Sunah al-Ijtimah fi al-Hakimin wa al-Mahkumin Lahum.” Al-Manar 10 (1907): 282–283.
———. “T‘asb Uruba al-Jins wa al-Din. Al-Jami‘yat al-Diniyah fi al-Sharq.” Al-Manar 1 (1898): 485.
———. “T‘asib Uruba ‘ala Muslimi Krit.” Al-Manar 1 (1898): 512.
———. “Ta‘lim ‘an Nisa’.” Al-Manar 2 (1899): 332–334.
———. Tafsir Al-Manar. 3rd ed. Cairo: Dar al Manar, 1947.
———. Tafsir Al-Manar. 1st ed. Cairo: al-Hay’a al-Misriyah al-‘Amma li al-Kitab, 1975.
———. “Tafsir al-Quran Al-Hakim.” Al-Manar 7 (1904): 91.
———. “Tafsir al-Quran Al-Hakim.” Al-Manar 28, (1927): 641.
———. “Tahrir al-Mar’ah.” Al-Manar 2 (1899): 373.
———. “Taqriz Al-Mar’ah al-Jadidah.” Al-Manar 4 (1901): 32–34.
———. “Tarbiyyah al-Adfal.” Al-Manar 2 (1899): 90–92; 107-109.
———. “Tarikh al-Manar wa al-Wahhabiyah.” Al-Manar 28, no. 1 (1927): 1–8.
———. Tarikh al-Ustadh al-Imam al-Shaykh Muhammad ʻAbduh. Misr: Matba’at al-Manar, 1931.
———. “Tarikh Mashru‘ al-Da‘wah wa al-Irshad.” Al-Manar 14, no. 1 (1911): 42-45.
———. “Tariqah al-Ustadh fi Qir‘ah al-Tafsir wa Tariqatuna fi Kitabatihi.” Al-Manar 28, no. 9 (1927): 655.
———. “Wa ma Kana Rabuk li Yahlak al-Qura.” Al-Manar 1, no. 31 (1898): 585–586.
———. “Wajah al-Hajah ila Tafsirna Hadha.” Al-Manar 28, no. 9 (1927): 650.

二、工具性質參考資料

Ahmad, Aziz. “Din i ilahi.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. E. J. Brill, 1991.
Böwering, Gerhard. “Erfan.” Encyclopaedia Iranica. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation, Brill, 1998.
Chittick, W.C. “Wahdat al-Wujud.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill, 2002.
Eich, Thomas. “Abul-Huda al-Sayyadi.” Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill, 2007.
Elwell-Sutton, L. P. “Lutfi al-Sayyid Ahmad.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill, 1986.
Esposito, John L., edit.. “Al-Urwat al-Wuthqa.” The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Accessed September26, 2020. http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2440.
Hallaq, Wael B. “Ahl al-Hall wa Al-‘Aqd.” The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford University Press, 1995.
Hinds, M. “Mihna.” Encyclopaedia of Islam,. Brill, 1993.
J.J.G. Jasen. “Tadjdid.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. E. J. Brill, 2000.
Juynbol, G.H.A., and Daniel W.Brown. “Sunna.” The Encyclopedia of Islam. Brill, 1997.
Keddie, Nikki R. “Al-Urwat al-Wuthqa.” Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa. Accessed September26, 2020. https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/urwa-al-wuthqa-al.
Khadduri, Majid. “Maslaha.” Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill, 1991.
VonKügelgen, Anke. “Abd al-Raziq, Mustafa.” Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE. Brill, 2008.
Lambton, A.K.S. “Khalifa.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. E. J. Brill, 1986.
Landau, J. M. “Pan-Islamism.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. E. J. Brill, 1995.
Laoust, H. “Ibn Taymiyyah.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. E. J. Brill, 1986.
Leaman, Oliver. “Al-Tahtawi, Rifa‘a Rafi‘ (1801-73).” The Biographical Encyclopaedia of Islamic Philosophy. Thoemmes Continuum, 2006.
Lewicki, T. “Halka.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. E. J. Brill, 1986.
Merad, A. “Islah.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. E.J. Brill, 1978.
n/a. “Tarbiya.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill, 2000.
Nasr, S. H. “Ithna ‘Ashariyyah.” Encyclopaedia of Islam. E. J. Brill, 1997.
Pedersen, J. “Madrasa.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill, 1986.
Pink, Johanna. “Rida, Rashid.” Encyclopaedia of the Quran. Brill, 2016.
Talbi, M. “Ibn Khaldun.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. E. J. Brill, 1986.
Ziai, Hossen. “Al-Suhrawardi.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill, 1997.
三、其他相關研究文獻
A.Wood, Simon. Christian Criticisms, Islamic Proofs: Rashid Rida’s Modernist Defense of Islam. Oxford: Oneworld, 2007.
Abaza, Mona. “Tanwir and Islamization: Rethinking the Struggle over Intellectual Inclusion in Egypt.” In Discourses in Contemporary Egypt: Politics and Social Issues, edited by Enid Hill, 85–117. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1999.
Abd al-Raziq, Ali. Al-Islam wa al-Usul al-Hukm. Misr: Matba`at Misir, 1925.
Abduh, Muhammad. al-Islam wa al-Mar’a. Edited by MuhammadAmara. Cairo: al-Qahira li al-Thaqafa al-Arabiyya, 1975.
———. “Hajat al-Insan ila al-Zawaj.” In al-Muslimun wa al-Islam, edited by Tahir Tanahi. Cairo: Dar al-Islam, 1963.
———. “Sirati.” In al-A’mal al-Kamila li’l-Imam Muhammad Abduh, edited by Muhammad Amara. 2nd ed. Beruit: al-Mu’assasa al-‘Arabiyya li’1-Dirasat wa’1-Nashr, 1980.
———. “Sultan al-Islam.” Al-Manar 5 (1902).
———. Tafsir Juz ‘Amma. Cairo: al-Manar, 1904.
———. Tafsir Surat Al-‘Asr. Cairo: al-Manar, 1903.
———. The Theology of Unity. Edited by Ishaq Musaad and Kenneth Cragg. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966.
Abu-Rabi, Ibrahim M. “Modern Trends in Islamic Education.” Religious Education 84, no. 2 (1989): 186–200.
Abu Zayd, Nasr Hamid. Reformation of Islamic Thought : A Critical Historical Analysis. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2006.
Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. The Tijaniyya: A Sufi Order in the Modern World. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.
Adams, Charles C. Islam and Modernism in Egypt. London: Oxford University Press, 1933.
Adamson, Peter. Philosophy in the Islamic World: A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2016.
Ahmad, Aziz. Studies in Islamic Culture in the Indian Environment. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964.
Ahmed, Safdar. Reform and Modernity in Islam: The Philosophical, Cultural and Political Discourses among Muslim Reformers. London ; New York: I.B. Tauris, 2013.
Al-Afghani, Jamal al-Din, and Muhammad Abduh. Al-Urwat al-Wuthqa. Cairo: Dar al-Arab li al-Bustani, 1957.
Al-Atiqi, Suliman. “The Origins of Kuwaiti Nationalism: Rashid Rida’s Influence on Kuwati National Identity.” The Arab Studies Journal 23 (2015): 78–122.
Al-Dhahabi, Husayn. Al-Tafsir wa al-Mufassirun. Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al-Arabi, 1976.
Al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid Muhammad. Al-Ghazali’s Tahafut al-Falasifah(Incoherence of the Philosophers). Edited by Sabih Ahmad Kamil. Lahore: Pakistan Philosophical Congress, 1963.
———. Al-Ghazzali on Repentance. Edited by M.S. Stern. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1990.
———. Al-Munqidh min al-Dalal(Al-Ghazali’s Path to Sufism and His Deliverance from Error). Edited by R.J. trans. by McCarthy. 2nd ed. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 2000.
———. Al-Munqidh min Al-Dalal. Edited by Jamil Suliba and Kamil Ayyad. Beirut: Dar al-Andalus, 1967.
———. Al-Mustasf min Ilm Al-Usul. Cairo: n.a, 1907.
———. Deliverance from Error: Translation of al-Munqidh min al-Dalal and Other Relevant Works of al-Ghazali. Edited by R.J. trans. McCarthy. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 1980.
———. Ihya Ulum al-Din. Beirut: Dar Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi, 1996.
———. Tahafut al-Falasifah. Edited by Sulayman Dunya. Cairo: Dar al-Maʻarif, 1980.
———. The Remembrance of Death and the Afterlife, Translation of Kitab Dhikr Al-Mawt wa-ma Badahu of Book XL of Ihya Ulum al-Din. Edited by Timothy trans. by Winter. Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1989.
Al-Mawardi, Abu al-Hasan. Al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyyah: The Laws of Islamic Governance. Edited by Asadullah Yate. London: Ta-Ha Publishers, 1996.
al-Muhtasib, Abd al-AMajid Abd al-Salam. Itijahat al-Tafsir fi al-Asr al-Rahin. Beirut: Dar al-Bayariq, 1982.
Al-Rahim, Abd al-Rahman Abdulrahman Abd. “The Effect of Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab’s Salafiyya Da‘wa on Religious and Social Reform in Egypt.” In A History of the Arabian Peninsula, 138–139. London: I. B. Tauris, 2010.
al-Rumi, Fahd b. Abd al-Rahman b. Sulayman. Itijahat al-Tafsir fi al-Qarn al-Rabi’ ‘Ashr. Riyadh: Maktabat al-Rushid, 2002.
Al-Sijistani, Abu Dawood. “Sunan of Abu Dawood.” Accessed May13, 2020. https://sunnah.com/abudawud/39.
al-Tahtawi, Rifa‘ah Rafi‘. Manahji al-Albab al-Misriyyah. Cairo, 1869.
Al-Tirmidhi, Muhammad ibn Isa. “Al-Jami‘ al-Sahih.” Accessed May13, 2020. https://sunnah.com/tirmidhi/40.
Alam, MuZaffar. “The Mughals, the Sufi Shaikhs and the Formation of the Akbari Dispensation.” Modern Asian Studies 43, no. 1 (January1, 2009): 135–174.
Ali, Kecia. Imam Shafi‘i: Scholar and Saint. Oxford, England: Oneworld, 2011.
Almond, Gabriel A., ApplebyR. Scott, and Emmanuel Sivan. Strong Religion: The Rise of Fundamentalisms around the World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003.
Alvi, Sajida Sultana. Perspectives on Mughal India: Rulers, Historians, ‘Ulama and Sufis. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Amin, Osman. Muhammad Abduh. Washington: American Council of Learned Societies, 1953.
Amin, Qasim. Tahrir al-Mar’ah. Cairo, 1899.
———. The Liberation of Women and The New Woman. Edited by Sidhom Petersontrans. Samiha. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 2000.
Ansari, Muhammad Abdul Haq. “Ibn ‘Arabi: The Doctrine of Wahdat al-Wujud.” Islamic Studies 38, no. 2 (1999): 149–192.
———. Sufism and Shariah: A Study of Shaykh Aḥmad Sirhindi’s Effort to Reform Sufism. Leicester: Islamic Foundation, 1986.
———. “The Doctrine of Divine Command: A Study in the Development of Ghazali’s View of Reality.” Islamic Studies 21, no. 3 (1982): 1–47.
Arafat, Alaa Al Din. The Rise of Islamism in Egypt. Palgrave Macmillan. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
Arberry, Arthur John. Sufism: An Account of the Mystics of Islam. London;Boston: Unwin Paperbacks, 1979.
Ardiç, Nurullah. “Genealogy or Asabiyya? Ibn Khaldun between Arab Nationalism and the Ottoman Caliphate.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 71, no. 2 (October2012): 315–324.
Arslan, Shakib, Amir. Our Decline : Its Causes and Remedies. New ed. Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Book Trust, 2004.
Arslan, Shakib. Al-Sayyid Rashid Rida: Au, Ikha‘ ‘Arba‘in Sanat. Dimashq: Matba’at Ibn Zabdun, 1937.
Asad, Talal. “The Idea of an Anthropology of Islam.” Qui Parle 17, no. 2 (2009): 1–30.
Augis, Erin. “Dakar’s Sunnite Women: The Dialectic of Submission and Defiance in a Globalizing City.” In Tolerance, Democracy, and Sufis in Senegal, edited by Mamadou Diouf, 73–98. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013.
Avari, Burjor. Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent. London ; New York: Routledge, 2013.
Ayalon, Ami. “The Press and Publishing.” In The New Cambridge History of Islam: Muslims and Modernity Culture and Society Since 1800, edited by Robert W. Henfer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Aydin, Cemil. The Idea of the Muslim World : A Global Intellectual History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2017.
Ayoob, Mohammed. The Many Faces of Political Islam. University of Michigan Press. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2008.
Aznan, Hasan. “An Introduction to Collective Ijtihad(Ijtihad Jama‘i).” American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 20, no. 2 (2003): 26–49.
Badran, Margot. Feminism in Islam: Secular and Religious Convergences. Oxford: Oneworld, 2009.
Bang, Anne K. Sufis and Scholars of the Sea : Family Networks in East Africa, 1860-1925. London ; New York: Routledge, 2003.
Baron, Beth. The Women’s Awakening in Egypt: Culture, Society, and the Press. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994.
DeBellaigue, Christopher. The Islamic Enlightenment : The Modern Struggle between Faith and Reason. London: The Bodley Head, an imprint of Vintage, 2017.
Benite, Zvi Ben-Dor. “Taking Abduh to China: Chinese Egyptian Intellectual Contact in the Early Twentieth Century.” In Global Muslims in the Age of Steam and Print, edited by James L. Gelvin and Nile Green, 249–268. Berkeley; Los Angeles, 2014.
Berkey, Jonathan Porter. The Transmission of Knowledge in Medieval Cairo: A Social History of Islamic Education. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992.
Beshara, Adel, ed. The Origins of Syrian Nationhood. London: Routledge, 2012.
Boauod, Marai. “The Making of Modern Egypt: The Egyptian Ulama as Custodians of Change and Guardians of Muslim Culture,” MA thesis, Portland State University 2016.
Broucek, James. “The Controversy of Shaykh Ali Abd al-Raziq.” Ph.D diss., Florida State University, 2012.
Brown, Daniel W. Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Brunner, Rainer. “Lâtinîya Lâ-Dînîya Muhammad Rashid Ridâ Über Arabisch Und Türkisch Im Zeitalter Des Nationalismus.” In Osmanische Welten : Quellen Und Fallstudien. Festschrift Für Michael Ursinus, edited by JohannesZimmermann, ChristophHerzog, andRaoulMotika, 73–114. Nürnberg: University of Bamberg Press, 2016.
Buehler, Arthur F. “Ahmad Sirhindi: A 21st-Century Update.” Der Islam 86, no. 1 (2011): 122–141.
———. Revealed Grace: The Juristic Sufism of Ahmad Sirhindi (1564-1624). Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 2011.
Burke III, Edmund, and David Prochaska. “Introduction: Orientalism from Postcolonial Theory to World Theory.” In Genealogies of Orientalism : History, Theory, Politics, edited by Edmund Burke III and David Prochaska. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008.
Chandra, Satish. Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals. New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications, 1997.
Chen, John. “Islam’s Loneliest Cosmopolitan: Badr al-Din Hai Weiliang, the Lucknow-Cairo Connection, and the Circumscription of Islamic Transnationalism.” ReOrient 3, no. 2 (2018): 120–139.
Cioeta, Donald J. “Ottoman Censorship in Lebanon and Syria, 1876-1908.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 10, no. 2 (1979): 167–186.
Cleveland, William L. Islam against the West: Shakib Arslan and the Campaign for Islamic Nationalism. 1st ed. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985.
Cole, Juan Ricardo. “Rashid Rida on the Baha‘i Faith: A Utilitarian Theory of the Spread of Religions.” Arab Studies Quarterly 5, no. 3 (1983): 276–291.
Commins, David Dean. Islamic Reform: Politics and Social Change in Late Ottoman Syria. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
Cooper, John, Ron L.Nettler, and Mohamed Mahmoud, eds. Islam and Modernity: Muslim Intellectuals Respond. London: I. B. Tauris, 1998.
Crecelius, Daniel. “Non-Ideological Responses of the Egyptian Ulama to Modernization.” In Sufis, Saints and Scholars: Muslim Religious Institutions in the Middle East since 1500, edited by Nikki R. Keddie, 167–210. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972.
Cuno, Kenneth M. “Egypt to c. 1919.” In The New Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 5, The Islamic World in the Age of Western Dominance. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Dale, Stephen Frederic. Babur: Timurid Prince and Mughal Emperor, 1483-1530. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018.
Dallal, Ahmad. “Appropriating the Past: Twentieth-Century Reconstruction of Pre-Modern Islamic Thought.” Islamic Law and Society 7, no. 3 (2000): 325–358.
David W. Damrel. “The ‘Naqshbandi Reaction’ Reconsidered.” In Beyond Turk and Hindu: Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South Asia, edited by David Gilmartin and Bruce B. Lawrence, 176–198. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2000.
Donohue, John J. and Esposito, John L., ed. Islam in Transition: Muslim Perspectives. 2nd ed. New York ; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Dudoignon, Stéphane A. “Echoes to Al-Manar among the Muslims of the Russian Empire: A Preliminary Research Note on Riza Al-Din b. Fakhr Al-Din and the Sura (1908–1918).” In Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World: Transmission, Transformation, Communication, edited by Stéphane A. Dudoignon, Komatsu Hisao, and Kosugi Yasushi, 85–116. London; New York: Routledge, 2006.
Dudoignon, Stéphane A., KomatsuHisao, andKosugiYasushi, eds. Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World: Transmission, Transformation, Communication. London ; New York: Routledge, 2006.
Eisenstadt, S. N. “Multiple Modernities.” Daedalus 129, no. 1 (2000): 1–29.
Elshakry, Marwa. Reading Darwin in Arabic, 1860-1950. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 2013.
Enayat, Hamid. Modern Islamic Political Thought: The Response of the Shi‘i and Sunni Muslims to the Twentieth Century. London ; New York: Macmillan, 2005.
Faris, Nabih Amin. The Book of Knowledge: Being a Translation with Notes of the Kitab al-Ilm of al-Ghazzali’s Ihyaʼ ʻUlum al-Din. 2nd ed. Lahore, Pakistan: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 1966.
Fisher, Michael Herbert. A Short History of the Mughal Empire. London: I.B. Tauris, 2016.
Friedmann, Yohanan. Shaykh Aḥmad Sirhindi: An Outline of His Thought and a Study of His Image in the Eyes of Posterity. Montreal: McGill University, 1971.
Gen, Kasuya. “The Influence of Al-Manar on Islamism in Turkey: The Case of Mehmed Âkif.” In Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World: Transmission, Transformation, Communication, edited by Stéphane A. Dudoignon, Komatsu Hisao, and Kosugi Yasushi, 74–84. London; New York: Routledge, 2006.
Gerges, Fawaz A. Making the Arab World : Nasser, Qutb, and the Clash That Shaped the Middle East. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018.
Gesink, Indira Falk. Reforms in Islamic Education : International Perspectives. Edited by Charlene Tan. Reforms in Islamic Education: International Perspectives. London ; New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014.
Gibb, H. A. R., and Harold Bowen. Islamic Society and the West: A Study of the Impact of Western Civilization on Moslem Culture in the Near East, Vol.1: Islamic Society in the Eighteenth Century. London: Oxford University Press, 1950.
Giddens, Anthony. Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991.
Glafi, Dagmar. “Popularizing Sciences through Arabic Journals in the Late 19th Century: How Al-Muqtataf Transformed Western Patterns.” In Changing Identities, 323–364. Berlin, Boston: Klaus Schwarz Verlag, 2021.
Goldschmidt Jr, Arthur. Modern Egypt: The Formation of a Nation-State. 2nd ed. Boulder, Colo.: Routledge, 2004.
Griffel, Frank. “What Do We Mean by ‘Salafi’? Connecting Muammad Abduh with Egypt’s Nur Party in Islam’s Contemporary Intellectual History.” Welt des Islams 55, no. 2 (2015): 186–220.
Haddad, Mahmoud. “Arab Religious Nationalism in the Colonial Era: Rereading Rashid Rida’s Ideas on the Caliphate.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 117, no. 2 (April1997): 253–277.
———. “The Manarist and Modernism: An Attempt to Fuse Society and Religion.” In Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World Transmission, Transformation and Communication, edited by Stéphane A. Dudoignon, Hisao Komatsu, and Yasushi Kosugi, 55–73. London; New York: Routledge, 2006.
Haddad, Yvonne. “Muhammad Abduh.” In Pioneers of Islamic Revival, edited by Ali Rahnema. London ; New York: Zed Books, 2005.
Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, John O.Voll, and John L. Esposito, eds. The Contemporary Islamic Revival : A Critical Survey and Bibliography. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991.
Haj, Samira. Reconfiguring Islamic Tradition : Reform, Rationality, and Modernity. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2009.
Halevi, Leor. Modern Things on Trial : Islam’s Global and Material Reformation In the Age of Rida, 1865-1935. New York: Columbia University Press, 2019.
Hallaq, Wael B. A History of Islamic Legal Theories: An Introduction to Sunni Usul al-Fiqh. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
———. “Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?” International Journal of Middle East Studies 16, no. 1 (1984): 3–41.
Hamzawy, A. “Al-Manar al-Jadid Changes in the Contemporary Islamist Discourse.” ISIM Newsletter 8, no. 1 (2001): 22.
———. “Exploring Theoretical and Programmatic Changes in Contemporary Islamist Discourse: The Journal al-Manar al-Jadid.” In Transnational Political Islam: Religion, Ideology and Power, edited by Azza Karam, 120–146. Londom: Pluto Press, 2004.
Hanssen, Jens, and Max Weiss. Arabic Thought beyond the Liberal Age : Towards an Intellectual History of the Nahda. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2016.
Haykel, Bernard. “On the Nature of Salafi Thought and Action.” In Global Salafism: Islam’s New Religious Movement, edited by Roel Meijer. New York: Columbia University Press, 2009.
Hefner, Robert W. “Introduction: The Culture, Politics, and Future of Muslim Education.” In Schooling Islam: The Culture and Politics of Modern Muslim Education, edited by Robert W. Hefner and Muhammad Qasim Zaman. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007.
Henri Lauzière. “Rashid Rida’s Rehabilitation of the Wahhabis and Its Consequences.” In The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century, 60–95. New York: Columbia University Press, 2016.
Hodgson, Marshall G. S. The Venture of Islam : Conscience and History in a World Civilization. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974.
Holt, P. M. (Peter Malcolm), Ann K. S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, eds. The Cambridge History of Islam: V.1A, the Central Islamic Lands, from Pre-Islamic Times to the First World War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
Holt, P. M., Ann K. S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, eds. The Cambridge History of Islam: V.1B, the Central Islamic Lands Since 1918. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970.
Hoover, Jon. Ibn Taymiyya. London: Oneworld, 2019.
Hourani, Albert. Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age 1798-1939. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Hourani, Albert H. “Sufism and Modern Islam: Rashid Rida.” In The Emergence of the Modern Middle East, 90–102. Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1981.
Ibn Khaldun. The Muqaddimah : An Introduction to History. Edited by N.J. Dawood. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015.
Ibn Taymiyyah. Al-Siyasah al-Sharia fi Islah wa al-Ra‘iyah. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyah, 1988.
Ibrahim, Ahmed Fekry. “Rethinking the Taqlid Hegemony: An Institutional, Longue-Durée Approach.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 136, no. 4 (2016): 801–816.
Irwin, Robert. Ibn Khaldun : An Intellectual Biography. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2018.
Ishak, Mohd. Shuhaimi Haji. Islamic Rationalism : A Critical Evaluation of Harun Nasution’s Thought. 1st ed. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: IIUM Press, 2009.
Issawi, Charles. “Egypt Since 1800: A Study in Lop-Sided Development.” The Journal of Economic History 21, no. 1 (1961): 1–25.
Jackson, Roy. Fifty Key Figures in Islam. London: Routledge, 2006.
Jamal Muhammad Ahmad. The Intellectual Origins of Egyptian Nationalism. London: Oxford University Press, 1960.
Janin, Hunt. The Pursuit of Learning in the Islamic World, 610-2003. London: McFarland, 2005.
Jansen, Johannes J. G. The Dual Nature of Islamic Fundamentalism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997.
Juynboll, G. H. A. The Authenticity of the Tradition Literature: Discussions in Modern Egypt. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.
Kadi, Wadad, and Aram A. Shahin. “Caliphate.” In Islamic Political Thought: An Introduction. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015.
Kaloti, Sami Abdullah. “The Reformation of Islam and the Impact of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh on Islamic Education.” Marquette University, 1974.
Kawtharani, Wajih. Mukhtarat Siyasiya min Majallat al-Manar li Rashid Rida. Beirut: Dar al-Tali‘ah, 1980.
Keddie, Nikki R. An Islamic Response to Imperialism: Political and Religious Writings of Sayyid Jamal ad-Din “Al-Afghani.” Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968.
———. “Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Afghani.” In Pioneers of Islamic Revival, edited by Ali Rahnema. London ; New York: Zed Books, 2005.
Kedourie, Elie. Afghani and Abduh: An Essay on Religious Unbelief and Political Activism in Modern Islam. London: Cass, 1966.
Kenneth Garden. The First Islamic Reviver: Abu Hamid al-Ghazali and His Revival of the Religious Sciences. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Kerr, Malcolm Hooper. Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966.
Khalidi, Rashid, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad Y. Muslih, and Reeva Spector Simon, eds. The Origins of Arab Nationalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1991.
Khalil, Mohammad Hassan. Islam and the Fate of Others : The Salvation Question. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Kohli, Atul. Imperialism and the Developing World: How Britain and the United States Shaped the Global Periphery. New York: Oxford University Press, 2020.
Kondrys, Jan. “Islamic Modernism: A Legitimate Part of a Historical Tradition of Islamic Thought.” West Bohemian Historical Review 7, no. 1 (2017): 49–72.
Koselleck, Reinhart. Futures Past: On the Semantics of Historical Time. Edited by trans. by Keith Tribe. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.
Krawietz, Birgit. “Cut and Paste in Legal Rules: Designing Islamic Norms with Talfiq.” Die Welt des Islams 42, no. 1 (2002): 3–40.
Kurzman, Charles., ed. Liberal Islam: A Source Book. New York ; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
———. Modernist Islam, 1840-1940 : A Sourcebook. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
LaCapra, Dominick. Rethinking Intellectual History : Texts, Contexts, Language. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983.
Lauzière, Henri. “The Construction of Salafiyya: Reconsidering Salafism From the Perspective of Conceptual History.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 42, no. 3 (2010): 369–389.
Lewis, Bernard. The Emergence of Modern Turkey. 3rd ed. London ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Livingston, John W. In the Shadows of Glories Past: Jihad for Modern Science in Muslim Societies, 1850 to the Arab Spring. New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2018.
Lombardi, Clark B. State Law as Islamic Law in Modern Egypt: The Incorporation of the Sharia into Egyptian Constitutional Law. Leiden ; Boston: Brill, 2006.
Long, C. W.R. British Pro-Consuls in Egypt, 1914-1929: The Challenge of Nationalism. London ; New York: Routledge, 2005.
Mahmoud O. Haddad. “Muhammad Rashid Rida.” In Islamic Legal Thought, edited by Oussama Arabi, David Powers, and Susan Spectorsky, 457–489. Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2013.
Makdisi, George. The Rise of Colleges: Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1981.
Marlowe, John. Cromer in Egypt. London: Elek, 1970.
Marsot, Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid. Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
———. “The Ulama of Cairo in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries.” In Sufis, Saints and Scholars: Muslim Religious Institutions in the Middle East since 1500, edited by Nikki R. Keddie, 149–166. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972.
Masumi, Matsumoto. “Rationalizing Patriotism among Muslim Chinese: The Impact of the Middle East on the Yuehua Journal.” In Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World: Transmission, Transformation, Communication, edited by Stéphane A. Dudoignon, Komatsu Hisao, and Kosugi Yasushi, 117–142. London; New York: Routledge, 2006.
Michot, Yahya M. “Al-Ghazali’s Esotericism According to Ibn Taymiyya’s Bughyat al-Murtad.” In Islam and Rationality: The Impact of al-Ghazali, edited by Georges Tamer, 345–374. Leiden: Brill, 2015.
Mir, Mustansir. “The Sura as a Unity: A Twentieth Century Development in Qur’an Exegesis.” In Approaches to the Qurʼānan, edited by G. R.Hawting. London: Routledge, 1993.
Mohamad, Yusri. Contemporary Ijtihad : An Analysis of Individual and Collective Approaches. Selangor, Malaysia: Islamic and Strategic Studies Institute Berhad (ISSI), 2016.
Mohamed Abubakr A. al-Musleh. Al-Ghazali as an Islamic Reformer (Muslih): An Evaluative Study of the Attempts of the Imam Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali at Islamic Reform (Islah). Selangor, Malaysia: Islamic Book Trust, 2012.
Mohamed, Norahida binti, Mohamad Zaidin bin MatMohamad, Muhamad Zaid bin Ismail, and Taha Talal Abdul ‘Alim Hanafy. “Education in the Perspective of Muhammad Rashid Rida.” International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences 7, no. 8 (2017): 116–129.
Moosa, Ebrahim, and SherAli Tareen. “Revival and Reform.” In Islamic Political Thought: An Introduction, edited by GerhardBowering, 202–218. Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2015.
Moradi, Fateme, and Nasrin Shokrpour. “Freedom and Education of Women in the Works and Ideas of Qasim Amin Mesri and Parvin Etesami.” International Journal of Multicultural and Multireligious Understanding 7, no. 5 (June13, 2020): 176–188.
Mukhia, Harbans. The Mughals of India. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2004.
Nicholson, Reynold Alleyne. The Mystics of Islam. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd, 1970.
Opwis, Felicitas. “Maslaha in Contemporary Islamic Legal Theory.” Islamic Law and Society 12, no. 2 (2005): 182–223.
Ormsby, Eric L. Ghazali: The Revival of Islam. Oxford: Oneworld, 2007.
Owen, Roger. Cotton and the Egyptian Economy: 1820-1914. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969.
———. The Middle East in the World Economy, 1800-1914. London ; New York: Methuen, 1981.
Özervarli, M. Sait. “Arbitrating between Al-Ghazali and the Philosophers: The Tahafut Commentaries in the Ottoman Intellectual Context.” In Islam and Rationality: The Impact of Al-Ghazali, edited by GeorgesTamer, 375–397. Leiden: Brill, 2015.
Pappé, Ilan. The Modern Middle East : A Social and Cultural History. 3rd ed. London ; New York: Routledge, 2014.
Peter, Rudolph. “Idjtihad and Taqlid in 18th and 19th Century Islam.” Die Welt des Islams 20, no. 3 (1980): 131–145.
Qayyum, Abdul. Letters of Al-Ghazzali. Lahore: Islamic Publications, 1976.
Quadri, Junaid. Transformations of Tradition: Islamic Law in Colonial Modernity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2021.
Rahman, Fazlur. Islam. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968.
———. Islam. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1979.
———. Islamic Methodology in History. Karachi: Central Institute of Islamic Research, 1965.
———. Revival and Reform in Islam: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism. Edited by Ebrahim.Moosa. Oxford: Oneworld, 2000.
———. “Revival and Reform in Islam.” In Cambridge History of Islam: Islamic Society and Civilization, edited by P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, 632–642. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
Rahnema, Ali. Pioneers of Islamic Revival. New York: Zed Books, 2005.
Reid, Donald M. Odyssey of Farah Antun: A Syrian Christian’s Quest for Secularism. Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1975.
Reid, Donald Malcolm. Cairo University and the Making of Modern Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire. Cambridge, England; New York, N.Y: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Ridgeon, Lloyd. Islamic Interpretations of Christianity. Richmond: Curzon, 2001.
Rizvi, Saiyid Athar Abbas. Muslim Revivalist Movements in Northern India in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1995.
Robinson, Francis, ed. The New Cambridge History of Islam. Vol.5: The Islamic World in the Age of Western Dominance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Ryad, Umar. “A Printed Muslim ‘Lighthouse’ in Cairo al-Manar’s Early Years, Religious Aspiration and Reception(1898-1903).” Arabica 56, no. 1 (2009): 27–60.
———. Islamic Reformism and Christianity : A Critical Reading of the Works of Muhammad Rashid Rida and His Associates (1898-1935). Leiden ; Boston: Brill, 2009.
———. “Islamic Reformism and Great Britain: Rashid Rida’s Image as Reflected in the Journal Al-Manar in Cairo.” Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations 21, no. 3 (July27, 2010): 263–285.
Sadeh, Roy Bar. “Debating Gandhi in al-Manar during the 1920s and 1930s.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 38, no. 3 (2018): 491–507.
Saeed, Abdullah. Islamic Thought: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2006.
Safran, Nadav. Egypt in Search of Political Community: An Analysis of the Intellectual and Political Pvolution of Egypt, 1804-1952. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961.
Sayyid Abul A‘la Maududi. A Short History of the Revivalist Movement in Islam. 1999 stude. Petaling Jaya, Malaysia: The other Press, 1963.
Schacht, Joseph. An Introduction to Islamic Law. Oxford; New York: Clarendon Press, 1982.
Scharbrodt, Oliver. “The Salafiyya and Sufism: Muhammad Abduh and His Risalat al-Waridat on Mystic(Treatise on Mystical Inspirations).” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70, no. 1 (2007): 89–115.
Schimmel, Annemarie. Islam in the Indian Subcontinent. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1980.
———. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. 35th anniv. Chapel Hill, N.C: University of North Carolina Press, 2011.
———. The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture. London: Reaktion Books, 2004.
Sedgwick, Mark J. Muhammad Abduh. Oxford: Oneworld, 2010.
Seyyed Hossein Nasr. Three Muslim Sages: Avicenna, Suhrawardi, Ibn ‘Arabi. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964.
Shafiʻi, Muhammad ibn Idris. Al-Imam Muhammad Ibn Idris al-Shafi‘i’s al-Risala fi Usul al-Fiqh: Treatise on the Foundations of Islamic Jurisprudence. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1987.
Shahin, Emad Eldin. Through Muslim Eyes: M. Rashid Rida’s and the West. 1st ed. Herndon, Va., USA: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1993.
El Shakry, Omnia. The Great Social Laboratory: Subjects of Knowledge in Colonial and Postcolonial Egypt. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2007.
Shamsy, AhmedEl. “Rethinking Taqlid in the Early Shafi‘i School.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 128, no. 1 (2008): 1–23.
Sharabi, Hisham. Arab Intellectuals and the West : The Formative Years, 1875-1914. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1970.
Shavit, Uriya. Scienticfic and Political Freedom in Islam: A Critical Reading of the Modernist-Apologetic School. London: Routledge, 2017.
Shaw, Stanford J. (Stanford Jay). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press, n.d.
Sherif, Faruq. A Guide to the Contents of the Qur’an. Reading: Garnet Publishing, 1995.
Shils, Edward. Tradition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981.
Siddiqi, Mazheruddin. “A Historical Study of Iqbal’s Views on Sufism.” Islamic Studies 5, no. 4 (1966): 411–27.
Sinai, Nicolai. “Al-Suhrawardi’s Philosophy of Illumination and Al-Ghazali?” Archiv fur Geschichte der Philosophie 98, no. 3 (September2016): 272–301.
———. “Reading Surat al-An‘am with Muhammad Rashid Rida and Sayyid Qutb.” In Reclaiming Islamic Tradition: Modern Interpretations of the Classical Heritage, edited by Elisabeth Kendall and Ahmad Khan, 136–159. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2016.
Sirhindi, Ahmad. Maktubat-i Hadrat-i Mujaddid-i Alf-i Thani. Edited by Zawwar Husayn. Karachi: Idarash-i Mujaddidiyah, 1991.
———. Maktubat-i Iman Rabbani. Edited by Nur Ahmad. Karachi: Education Press, 1972.
———. Maktubat Imam Rabbani. Edited by Nur Ahmad. Lahore: Nur Company, 1964.
Sirriyeh, Elizabeth. “Rashid Rida’s Autobiography of the Syrian Years, 1865–1897.” Arabic & Middle Eastern Literature 3, no. 2 (2000): 179–194.
———. Sufis and Anti-Sufis: The Defense, Rethinking and Rejection of Sufism in the Modern World. New York: Routledge, 2013.
Sirry, Mun'im. “Jamal al-Din al-Qasimi and the Salafi Approach to Sufism.” Die Welt des Islams 51, no. 1 (2011): 75–108.
Skellie, Walter James. “The Religious Psychology of al-Ghazzali: A Translation of His Book of the Ihya on the Explanation of the Wonders of the Heart with Introduction and Notes.” Hartford Seminary, 1938.
Skinner, Quentin. Visions of Politics, Volume 1, Regarding Method. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Skinner, Quentin. “Meaning and Understanding in the History of Ideas.” History and Theory 8, no. 1 (1969): 3–53.
Soage, Ana Belén. “Rashid Rida’s Legacy.” The Muslim World 98, no. 1 (2008): 1–23.
Stolz, Daniel A. The Lighthouse and the Observatory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018.
Takahashi, Hidemi. “The Influence of al-Ghazali on the Juridical, Theological and Philosophical Works of Barhebraeus.” In Islam and Rationality: The Impact of al-Ghazali, edited by Georges Tamer, 303–325. Leiden: Brill, 2015.
Thompson, Elizabeth F. “Rashid Rida & the 1920 Syrian-Arab Constitution: How the French Mandate Undermined Islamic Liberalism.” In The Routledge Handbook of the History of the Middle East Mandates, edited by Cyrus Schayegh and Andrew Arsan, 244–257. London: Routledge, 2015.
Tibawi, A.L. Islamic Education: Its Traditions and Modernization into the Arab National System. London: Luzac Publishing Ltd, 1979.
Tibawi, Abdul Latif. A Modern History of Syria, Including Lebanon and Palestine. London: Macmillan, 1969.
Toledano, Ehud R. “Social and Economic Change in the Long “Nineteenth Century.” In The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol.2. Modern Egypt from 1517 to the End of the Twentieth Century, edited by M.W.Daly, 252–284. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Voll, John O. “Fundamentalism in the Sunni Arab World: Egypt and the Sudan.” In Fundamentalisms Observed, edited by Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby. Chicago ; London: University of Chicago Press, 1991.
———. “Renewal and Reform in Islamic History : Tajdid and Islah.” In Voices of Resurgent Islam, edited by John L. Esposito, 32–44. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.
Waardenburg, Jacques. Muslims as Actors: Islamic Meanings and Muslim Interpretations in the Perspective of the Study of Religions. Berlin; New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2007.
Warniqah, Muhammad. Al-Sayyid Muhammad Rashid Rida: Islahatuhu al-Ijitima‘iyah wa al-Diniyah. Beirut: Dar al-Iman, 1986.
Watt, W. Montgomery. Islamic Philosophy and Theology: An Extended Survey. 2nd ed. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1985.
———. Muslim Intellectual: A Study of al-Ghazali. Chicago: ABC International Group, 2002.
———. The Faith and Practice of Al-Ghazali. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1953.
Weismann, Itzchak. Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi: Islamic Reform and Arab Revival. London: Oneworld, 2015.
———. “Abul-Huda l-Sayyadi and the Rise of Islamic Fundamentalism.” Arabica 54, no. 4 (2007): 586–592.
———. “Modernity from Within: Islamic Fundamentalism and Sufism.” In Sufis and Salafis in the Contemporary Age, edited by Lloyd V. J.Ridgeon, 9–32. London ; New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015.
———. The Naqshbandiyya: Orthodoxy and Activism in a Worldwide Sufi Tradition. London: Routledge, 2007.
Whatmore, Richard, and Brian Young, eds. A Companion to Intellectual History. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2016.
Wink, André. Akbar. Oxford: Oneworld, 2009.
Wolfson, Harry A. The Philosophy of the Kalam. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976.
Womack, Deanna Ferree. “The Authenticity and Authority of Islam: Muhammad Rashid Rida’s Response to Twentieth-Century Missionary Publications.” Social Sciences and Missions 28, no. 1–2 (January1, 2015): 89–115.
Wood, Leonard G. H. (Leonard Gustauvus Harrison). Islamic Legal Revival: Reception of European Law and Transformations in Islamic Legal Thought in Egypt, 1875-1952. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.
Yasin, Mohammad. A Social History of Islamic India 1605-1748. Lucknow: Upper India Publishing House, 1958.
Yasushi, Kosugi. “Al-Manar Revisited.” In Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World Transmission, Transformation and Communication, edited by Stéphane A. Dudoignon, Komatsu Hisao, and Kosugi Yasushi. London ; New York: Routledge, 2006.
Yaycioglu, Ali. “Guarding Traditions and Laws—Disciplining Bodies and Souls: Tradition, Science, and Religion in the Age of Ottoman Reform.” Modern Asian Studies 52, no. 5 (September24, 2018): 1542–1603.
Zaki Badawi, Muhammad. The Reformers of Egypt. London: Croom Helm, 1978.
Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. Modern Islamic Thought in a Radical Age : Religious Authority and Internal Criticism. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Zeghal, Malika. “The Multiple Faces of Islamic Education in a Secular Age.” In Islam in the Modern World, edited by Ebrahim Moosa and Jeffrey T. Kenney, 125–148. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2012.
Zemmin, Florian. Modernity in Islamic Tradition : The Concept of “Society” in the Journal al-Manar (Cairo, 1898-1940). Boston, MA: De Gruyter, 2018.
林長寬. “伊斯蘭現代改革本質初探.” 世界宗教學刊 1, no. 1 (2003).
———. “女人形塑伊斯蘭？－論穆斯林女權與女性主義之改革.” 新世紀宗教研究 16, no. 3 (2018): 8.
———. “談伊斯蘭之現代化: 以Abduh之「現代化理念」為例.” 宗教哲學 5, no. 2 (1999): 57–75.
江孟勳. “當代伊斯蘭復興運動思想探源—以穆斯林兄 弟會(Ikhwan Al-Muslimin)之理念為例.” 佛光大學, 2007.
閃目氏-仝道章. 古蘭經. 譯林出版社, 1989.