本研究透過光聚合[2-(丙烯酰氧基)乙基]三甲基氯化銨(TMA)和2-丙烯酰胺-2-甲基-1-丙磺酸鈉（AMPS）通過與聚（乙二醇）二丙烯酸酯（PEGDA）製備雙離子高分子(Zwitterionic polymer, ZP)。水膠電解質(IC-Na2SO4、ZPE-Na2SO4、IA-Na2SO4 和 PVA（聚乙烯醇）-Na2SO4) 是通過膨潤於1M Na2SO4(aq)而製備。透過電化學阻抗圖譜 (Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, EIS)的計算， 25°C下的IC-Na2SO4、IPI-Na2SO4、IA-Na2SO4、1M Na2SO4(aq)和PVA-Na2SO4的離子電導度分別為37.7mScm-1、81.6mScm-1、62.9mScm-1、56.8mScm-1和0.135mScm-1。透過介電常數分析，ZPE-Na2SO4具有最大的介電常數。根據以上的結果，我們選擇表現最好的ZPE-Na2SO4來做為超級電容器的電解質。碳材對稱超級電容器 (Carbon-based symmetric supercapacitors, CSSs) 由 1M Na2SO4(aq) (CSS-aq)、PVA-Na2SO4 (CSS-PVA) 和 ZPE-Na2SO4 (CSS-ZPE) 組裝而成。通過循環伏安法，CSS-aq、CSS-PVA 和 CSS-ZPE 的電位窗口 (Electrochemical window, EW) 分別為 1.2V、1.3V 和 1.9V。在0.5Ag-1的電流密度下，CSS-aq、CSS-PVA和CSS-ZPE的比電容分別為125 Fg-1、71 Fg-1和246.2 Fg-1。CSS-ZPE還具有121.3 WhKg-1的高能量密度、38424.6 WKg-1的高功率密度及5000次充放電循環。為了更進一步擴大EW，我們將水於鹽(Water-in-salts)引入ZP，製備出具有高離子導電度及寬EW的ZPE。 ZPE由膨潤於1m、5m、10m、15m 和 17m NaClO4(aq)來製備，分別表示為 ZPE-S1、ZPE-S5、ZPE-S10、ZPE-S15 和 ZPE-S17。其中，ZPE-S17具有17m NaClO4(aq)的1.12倍的EW。此外，NaClO4(aq)的離子導電度隨著濃度從1m至5m而上升，隨著濃度從5m增加到17m而降低。有趣的是，ZPE 的離子電導度隨著濃度增加至15m而持續增加。 在17m的情況下，ZPE-S17 仍保持 106.1 mScm-1 的高離子電導率。我們將1m NaClO4(aq)、17m NaClO4(aq)、ZPE-S1、ZPE-S15和 ZPE-S17作為電解質並組裝成CSS，依序命名為CSS-aq1、CSS-aq17、CSS-ZPE1、CSS-ZPE15及CSS-ZPE17。其中，CSS-ZPE17 表現出 2.4 V 的EW 和優異的電化學性能，在 2313.5 Wkg-1的高功率密度下展現133.5 Whkg-1 的高能量密度，提供了水性儲能裝置的巨大潛力。
由以上結果可知，雙離子水膠中的固定離子確實增加了離子導電度，並擴大了EW。我們開始思考如何增加水膠電解質中固定離子的密度，以進一步提高離子導電性。另一方面，機械性質也是水膠電解質的重要因素之一。在此，我們提出了能夠實現超高離子電導度和優良機械性能的半互穿高分子網絡結構(Semi-interpenetrating polymeric network)電解質（ZSIPNEs）。ZSIPNEs是通過將不同含量的聚(甲基丙烯酸磺酸鈉)(pSBMA)引入到ZP中並將其膨潤於17m NaClO4(aq) 而製備。當pSBMA含量為0.1%時，ZS-0.1具有超高的離子電導度135.2mScm-1。此外，ZS-0.1顯示出優異的機械性能，包括0.36MPa的抗壓強度(Compressive strength)、74.5%的抗壓應變(Compressive strain)、33.7kPa的抗壓模量(Compressive modulus)和4.329Jm-3的韌性(Toughness)。此外，我們將17m NaClO4（aq）、ZS-0和ZS-0.1作為電解質，組裝成CSS，依序命名為C-aq、C-ZPE和C-ZSIPNE，並進行電化學測試。C-ZSIPNE顯示出2.4V的寬廣電化學窗口和優越的電化學性能，並提供83.6Whkg-1的高能量密度和19.1kWkg-1的高功率密度。在90∘的彎曲角度下，C-ZSIPNE的電容幾乎保持在100%，在柔性超級電容器中具有潛在的應用價值。
在最後，我們提出另一個方法來增加水膠電解質的固定離子密度。我們利用甜菜鹼官能化氧化石墨烯（Betaine functional graphene oxide, BFGO），作為增強劑和解離劑，增加ZPE的離子導電度和機械性質。BFGO是透過偶氮-麥可加成反應(azo-Michael addition reaction)，將磺基甜菜鹼甲基丙烯酸酯(SBMA)接枝到氧化石墨烯(Graphene oxide, GO)。然後，將BFGO引入ZP並膨潤於1M Na2SO4(aq)製備成BFGO-ZPE。BFGO-ZPE不僅含水量達到 86.4wt%，溶脹率達到 625%，同時還顯示出色的機械性能，包括84.4kPa的壓縮強度、67%的壓縮應變、14.2kPa的壓縮模量和1.16 Jm-3。此外，BFGO-ZPE 在 25°C 下具有 107mScm-1 的高離子電導度。實用上，我們將ZPE、GO-ZPE、BFGO-ZPE作為電解質應用於CSS，依序命名為CSS-ZPE、CSS-GZ及CSS-BGZ。CSS-BGZ展現46.2 WhKg-1的高能量密度和8.2 kWKg-1的高功率密度。值得注意的是，CSS-BGZ 在彎曲 90° 後還具有 100% 的電容保持率，在柔性超級電容器中具有潛在應用。

In this study, hydrogel electrolytes with the immobilized pair ions, Zwitterionic polymer electrolytes (ZPEs), were studied for carbon-based supercapacitors. HEs with immobilized cations (ICs), immobilized pair ions, ZPEs, and immobilized anions (IAs) were prepared by controlling the mole ratio of [2-(acryloyloxy)ethyl]trimethylammonium chloride (TMA) and 2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid sodium (AMPS) via random copolymerization with poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA). HEs (IC-Na2SO4, ZPE-Na2SO4, IA-Na2SO4, and PVA (Polyvinyl alcohol)-Na2SO4) was simply prepared by 1M Na2SO4(aq) intake. The ionic conductivities of IC-Na2SO4, ZPE-Na2SO4, IA-Na2SO4, 1M Na2SO4(aq), and PVA-Na2SO4 were 37.7 mScm-1, 81.6 mScm-1, 62.9 mScm-1, 56.8 mScm-1, and 0.135mScm-1 at 25°C via electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Based on the dielectric analysis, ZPE-Na2SO4 with showed the largest dielectric constant was chosen for the supercapacitor test. Carbon-based symmetric supercapacitors (CSSs) were assembled with 1M Na2SO4(aq) (CSS-aq), PVA-Na2SO4 (CSS-PVA), and ZPE-Na2SO4 (CSS-ZPE). Electrochemical windows (EWs) of CSS-aq, CSS-PVA, and CSS-ZPE were respectively 1.2V, 1.3V, and 1.9V via cyclic voltammetry. The specific capacitances of CSS-aq, CSS-PVA, and CSS-ZPE were respectively 125 Fg-1, 71 Fg-1, and 246.2 Fg-1 at current density of 0.5Ag-1. Since ZPE-Na2SO4 possesses 1.43 times ionic conductivity and 1.58 times EW of the 1M Na2SO4(aq), it also possessed the remarkable energy density of 121.3 WhKg-1 and high power density of 38424.6 WKg-1 with 5000 charge/discharge cycles.
To further enlarge the EW, we demonstrate how to prepare the hydrogel electrolytes with high ionic conductivity and wide EW through ZP with water-in-salt eletrlytes. ZPES are simply prepared by 1m, 5m, 10m, 15m, and 17m NaClO4(aq) intake, being denoted as ZPE-S1, ZPE-S5, ZPE-S10, ZPE-S15, and ZPE-S17, respectively. Among them, ZPE-S17 shows 1.12 times EW of 17m NaClO4(aq). However, the ionic conductivities of NaClO4(aq) decrease with the increasing concentration from 5m to 17m. Interestingly, ionic conductivity of ZPEs gradually increase with increasing concentration until 15m. ZPE-S17 still keep the high ionic conductivity of 106.1 mScm-1 which is about 2.73 times higher than 17m NaClO4(aq). Furthermore, the electrochemical performances of electrolytes are studied using CSSs which are assembled with 1m NaClO4(aq) (CSS-aq1), 17m NaClO4(aq) (CSS-aq17) , ZPE-S1 (CSS-ZPE1), ZPE-S15 (CSS-ZPE15) and ZPE-S17 (CSS-ZPE17). CSS-ZPE17 exhibits the wide EW of 2.4 V and the superior electrochemical performance by delivering a supreme specific energy of 133.5 Whkg−1 at a specific power of 2313.5 Wkg−1, demonstrating the great potential for aqueous energy storage devices.
As discussed above, it is clear the immobilized ions indeed increase ionic conductivity and enlarge the electrochemical window. We start to think about how to increase the density of immobilized ions in hydrogel electrolytes to further increase ionic conductivity. On the other hand, the mechanical properties are also one of the important factors for hydrogel electrolytes. Here, we present the zwitterionic semi-interpenetrating polymeric network electrolytes (ZSIPNEs) that enable achieving ultra-high ionic conductivity and excellent mechanical properties. ZSIPNEs are synthesis by interpenetrating various content of poly(sulfobetaine methacrylate) (pSBMA) into ZP, being simply prepared by 17m NaClO4(aq) intake. At content of pSBMA of 0.1%, ZS-0.1 possesses the ultra-high ionic conductivity of 135.2 mScm-1 at 25°C. In addition, ZS-0.1 shows excellent mechanical properties, including the compressive strength of 0.36 MPa, compressive strain of 74.5%, compressive modulus of 33.7 kPa, and toughness of 4.329 Jm-3. Furthermore, the electrochemical performances of electrolytes are studied using carbon-based SCs which are assembled with 17m NaClO4(aq) (C-aq), ZS-0 (C-ZPE), and ZS-0.1 (C-ZSIPNE), being evaluated by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry, and galvanostatic charge/discharge. C-ZSIPNE shows the wide electrochemical window of 2.4 V and the superior electrochemical performance by delivering high energy density of 83.6Whkg-1, and high power density of 19.1kWkg-1. Under bending angles of 90∘, the capacitance of C-ZSIPNE keeps at almost 100%, being potential application in flexible supercapacitors.
As mentioned above, the ionic conductivity of hydrogel electrolytes was increased with increasing the density of immobilized ions. Thus, we demonstrate the betaine-functionalized graphene oxide (BFGO) as roles in reinforcement filler and dissociation enhancer, enhancing the mechanical properties and ionic conductivity of ZPE. BFGO is synthesized by grafting sulfobetaine methacrylate onto the graphene oxide via oxa-Michael addition reaction. Then, BFGO-ZP is prepared by random oxidative polymerization of equimolar TMA, AMPS with PEGDA in aqueous dispersions of BFGO. BFGO-ZPE is simply prepared by 1M Na2SO4(aq) intake. BFGO enables a high water content of 86.4 wt% and swelling ratio of 625% in BFGO-ZPE which also shows excellent mechanical properties, including the compressive strength of 84.4kPa, compressive strain of 67%, compressive modulus of 14.2kPa, and toughness of 1.16 Jm-3. In addition, BFGO-ZPE possesses ultra-high ionic conductivity of 107mScm-1 at 25°C. Furthermore, the electrochemical performances of electrolytes are studied using CSS which are assembled with ZPE (CSS-ZPE), GO-ZPE (CSS-GZ), and BFGO-ZPE (CSS-BGZ). Since BFGO-ZPE possesses ultra-high ionic conductivity, CSS-BGZ possesses the remarkable high energy density of 46.2 WhKg-1 and high power density of 8.2 kWKg-1. Notably, CSS-BGZ also possesses 100% capacitance retention after bending to 90°, being potential application in flexible supercapacitors.

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