目的：本研究檢驗患有注意力不足/過動症(Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder)兒童的母親和一般母親對於兒童正負向行為歸因型態的差異，以及討論兩者腦神經活化情形的不同。先前研究顯示，母親歸因兒童行為的方式會影響其教養風格以及改變兒童行為，而孩童患有注意力不足/過動症是影響歸因方式和教養方式的調節變項。注意力不足/過動症兒童母親的歸因方式對於孩童將來的發展十足重要，除討論注意力不足/過動症兒童母親對兒童行為的歸因風格外，本研究以使用功能性磁振造影(functional magnetic resonance imaging)加以檢驗在注意力不足/過動症兒童母親進行歸因時背後的腦神經基礎，討論在一般兒童母親和注意力不足/過動症兒童母親兩者在進行兒童行為歸因時的差異。
方法：本研究共納入12名注意力不足/過動症兒童母親參與者與20名一般母親參與者。請參與者在MRI儀器中對兒童正負向行為刺激句進行歸因並測其腦部活化，實驗的設計以McArthur(1972)的研究為範典，使用的刺激句則參考精神疾病診斷準則手冊第五版中注意力不足/過動症的診斷句。
結果：結果顯示注意力不足/過動症兒童母親與一般兒童母親對兒童的負向行為做個人歸因的比例皆高於對兒童正向行為做個人歸因的比例。但在腦造影的結果可以發現，與一般兒童母親相比注意力不足/過動症兒童母親在正向個人歸因組合中，所活化的前側前額葉皮質(anterior prefrontal cortex)、左側腦島(left Insula)以及前扣帶迴(anterior cingulate)與情緒和心智化網絡相關，因此或許注意力不足/過動症兒童母親對於正向兒童行為需要花更多心力調整歸因方式。另外，比起一般兒童母親無論在兒童行為和歸因的組合，注意力不足/過動症兒童母親的腦島(insula)皆有顯著活化。

SUMMARY
The purpose of the research is to explore brain network how to working with the different attribution style of mothers of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) compared with mothers of children without ADHD. The participants are twenty mothers of children with ADHD children and twenty mothers of children without ADHD children as the control group. Using the McArthur paradigm design the experiment form and both groups of participants make attribution for positive/negative behaviors of children by choosing one from four choices. At the same time, when two groups reading the attention combination, we use functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine the basis of the brain network behind. The result shows both groups of mothers view negative behaviors of children more to person attribution. ADHD group mothers’ anterior cingulate and anterior prefrontal cortex have more activity when the reading the attribution combination of the positive behaviors of children. In addition, there is a significant activation of insula in ADHD group, regardless of the combination of child behavior and attribution. The main conclusion is that mothers of children without ADHD would spend more effort to adjust attribution for positive child behavior.

INTRODUCTION

To investigate the attributions differences in positive and negative children’s behavioral patterns of mothers in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and to discuss the differences in brain activation between the two groups. The previous studies have shown that mothers' attributable to children behavior affects their parenting style and changes in child behavior, while children with ADHD are regulatory variables that affect attribution and parenting. Therefore, the mother's attribution is important for the future development of the children. In addition to discussing the attributional style of child behavior in children with ADHD, this study uses functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine the basis of the brain network behind the mother's attention in the ADHD children.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty mothers with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder children were enrolled in the study and contrast with twenty participants of the general mother. Participants were encouraged to test the positive and negative behavioral stimulus of children in MRI instruments and to test their brain activation. The design of the experiment was based on the study of McArthur (1972), and the use of the stimulus sentence refers to the guidelines for the diagnosis of mental illness the fifth edition.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results showed that the proportion of negative attribution to mothers with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder children to children's negative behavior in general was higher than the proportion of individual attribution to children's positive behavior. But in the results of brain imaging can be found, compared with the general child mothers lack of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder children’s mothers in the positive individual attribution combination of brain area involved in emotion and mental network of brain area, so perhaps the lack of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder children’s mothers need to spend more effort to adjust attribution for positive child behavior. In addition, there is a significant activation of the mother's brain (insula) in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, regardless of the combination of child behavior and attribution.

CONCLUSION

Contrary to the research hypothesis, both groups of mothers may view negative behaviors of children to person attribution. When ADHD group reading the attribution combination of the positive behaviors they may spend more effort to adjust attribution for positive child behavior and with higher emotion. In addition, the research may investigate the difference attribution mental network of mothers with ADHD children and without ADHD children, which may have important impact on designing ADHD children’s parent-child relationship training program.

(一)中文參考文獻
李珏妤（2014）。ADHD兒童的母親對兒童行為的歸因研究。國立成功大學，台南市。
林一真（2000）。貝克焦慮量表（中文版）。台北市：中國行為科學社。
翁毓秀（2003）。親職壓力量表：指導手冊。台北市：心理出版社。
陳心怡（2000）。貝克憂鬱量表（第二版）（中文版）。台北市：中國行為科學社。
陳怡群，黃惠玲，趙家琛（2009）。阿肯巴克實證衡鑑系統－計分手冊。台北市：心理出版社。
(二)英文參考文獻
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2000). Manual for the ASEBA Preschool Forms and Profiles. Burlington: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2007). Multicultural Supplement to the Manual for the ASEBA School-Age Forms & Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.
Altepeter, T. S., & Breen, M. J. (1989). The Home Situations Questionnaire (HSQ) and the School Situations Questionnaire (SSQ): Normative data and an evaluation of psychometric properties. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 7(4), 312–322.
American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM–5)
Amodio, D. M., & Frith, C. D. (2006). Meeting of minds:The medial frontal cortex and social cognition., NatureReviews Neuroscience, 7,268–277.
Barkley, R. A. (1988). Attention. In M, Tramontana & S. Hooper (Eds.), Issues in child clinical neuropsychology. Plenum, New York
Barkley, R.A. (1997a). ADHD and the nature of self-control. New York : Guilford.
Barkley, R.A. (1997b). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, self-regulation, and time: toward a more comprehensive theory. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 18, 4, 271-279.
Barkley, R.A. (1997c). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions : constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 1, 65-94.
Barkley, R. A., & Edelbrock, C. S. (1987). Assessing situational variation in children’s problem behaviors: The Home and School Situations Questionnaires. In Prinz, R. J. (Ed.). Advances in behavioral assessment of children and families (Vol. 3 pp. 157–176). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
Barkley, R. A., & Murphy, K. (1998). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A clinical workbook (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.
Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1993). Beck Anxiety Inventory. Manual. San Antonio: Harcourt Brace & Co.
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for Beck Depression lnventory-II. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
Brosch, T., Schiller, D., Mojdehbakhsh, R., Uleman, J. S., & Phelps, E. A. (2013). Neural mechanisms underlying the integration of situational information into attribution outcomes. Social cognitive and affective neuroscience,8, 640-646
Buchanan, S. L., Valentine, J., & Powell, D. A. (1985). Autonomic responses are elicited by electrical stimulation of medial but not lateral frontal cortex in rabbits. Behavioral Brain Research, 18, 51-62.
Bugental, D. B., & Johnston, C. (2000). Parental and child cognitions in the context of the family. Annual review of psychology, 51(1), 315-344.
Critchley, H.D.,Corfield,D.R., Chandler,M.P., Mathias, C.J.,& Dolan, R.J.(2000).Cerebral correlates of autonomic cardiovascular arousal: a functional neuroimaging investigation in humans., The Journal of Physiology, 523(Pt 1): 259–270.
Danforth, J. S. Barkley, R. A., & Stokes, T. F (1991). Observations of interactions between parents and their hyperactive children: Research and clinical implications. Clinical Psychology Review, 11,703-727.
Dix, T., & Grusec, J. E. (1983). Parental influence techniques: An attributional analysis. Child Development, 645-652.
Dix, T. H., & Grusec, J. E. (1985). Parental attribution processes in child socialization. In I. E. Sigel (Ed.),Parental belief systems: Their psychological consequences for children (pp. 201-233). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Dix, T., Ruble, D. N., Grusec, J. E., & Nixon, S. (1986). Social cognition in parents: Inferential and affective reactions to children of three age levels. Child Development, 879-894.
Dix, T., Ruble, D. N., & Zambarano, R. J. (1989). Mothers' implicit theories of discipline: Child effects, parent effects, and the attribution process. Child Development, 1373-1391.
Douglas, V. I. (1983).Attentional and cognitive problems. In M. Rutter (Ed.), Developmental neuropsychiatry (Chap. 14, pp. 280-329). New York: Guilford Press.
Dupaul, G. J., & Barkley, R. A. (1992). Situational variability of attention problems: Psychometric properties of the revised home and school situations questionnaires. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21, 178–188.
DuPaul, G. J., Thomas, J., & Anastopoulos, A. D. (1998). ADHD rating scale-IV: Checklists, norms, and clinical interpretation. New York: Guilford Press.
Erford, B. T. (1993). Manual for the disruptive behavior rating scale. NY: Slosson.
Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (1999). Interacting minds —A biological basis., Science, 86,1692–1695.
Frick, P. J. (1994). Family dysfunction and the disruptive disorders: a review of recent empirical findings. In: T. H. Ollendick & R. J. Prinz. (Eds.), Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, Volume 16 .(pp.203-226). New York: Plenum.
Gilbert, D. T., Krull, D. S., & Pelham, B. W. (1988). Of thoughts unspoken: Social inference and the self-regulation of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55(5), 685-694.
Harris, L. T., Todorov, A., & Fiske, S. T. (2005). Attributions on the brain: Neuro-imaging dispositional inferences, beyond theory of mind. Neuroimage, 28(4), 763-769.
Hamilton, D. L. (1998). Dispositional and attributional inferences in person perception. In J. M. Darley & J. Cooper (Eds.), Attribution and social interaction: The legacy of Edward E. Jones (pp. 99-114). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Huang, H. L., Chao, C. C., Tu, C. C., Kuo, Y. H., & Yang, P. C. (2004). Behavioral assessment of inattention and hyperactivity in Taiwanese preschoolers: Comparison among multiple informants. Archives of Clinical Psychology, 1, 57–66.
Huang, H. L., Li, S. S., Cheng, C. P., Lin, C. Y., Yang, Y. K., & Huang, J. H. (2014). The negative attribution processes of mothers of children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(1), 87-98.
Johnston, C., Chen, M., & Ohan, J. (2006). Mothers' attributions for behavior in nonproblem boys, boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant behavior. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35(1), 60-71.
Johnston, C., & Freeman, W. (1997). Attributions for child behavior in parents of children without behavior problems and children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 636-645
Johnston, C., Mash, E.J.,(2001) Families of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Review and recommendations for future research. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review.;4:183–207.
Johnston, C., & Ohan, J. L. (2005). The importance of parental attributions in families of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity and disruptive behavior disorders. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8(3), 167-182.
Joiner, T.E., & Wagner, K.D.(1996). Parental, child-centered attributions and outcome: A meta-analytic review with conceptual and methodological implications., Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology., 24:37–52.
Kelley, H. H. (1973). The processes of causal attribution. American Psychologist, 28(2), 107-128.
Kuo, W.J., Sjöström, T., Chen, Y.P., Wang, Y.H., & Huang, C.Y.(2009) Intuition and deliberation: two systems for strategizing in the brain. Science, 324(5926):519-22.
Liddle, P. F., Kiehl, K. A., & Smith, A. M. (2001). Event‐related fMRI study of response inhibition. Human brain mapping, 12(2), 100-109.
Lieberman, M. D. (2007). Social cognitive neuroscience: a review of core processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 259-289.
Lieberman, M. D., Gaunt, R., Gilbert, D. T., & Trope, Y. (2002). Reflexion and reflection: A social cognitive neuroscience approach to attributional inference. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 199–249). San Diego: Academic Press.
Mash, E. J., & Barkley, R. A. (Eds.). (2006). Treatment of childhood disorders (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Mash, E.J., & Johnston, C.(2005). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder disorder and the family: A developmental psychopathology perspective. In J. Hudson & R. Rapee (Eds.), Current thinking on psychopathology and the family (pp. 95-126). New York: Elsevier.
Mason, M. F., & Morris, M. W. (2010). Culture, attribution and automaticity: a social cognitive neuroscience view. Social cognitive and affective neuroscience, 5(2-3), 292-306.
Ma, N., Vandekerckhove, M., Van Overwalle, F., Seurinck, R., &Fias, W. (2010). Spontaneous and intentional trait inferencesrecruit a common mentalizing network to a different degree:Spontaneous inferences activate only its core areas., Social Neuroscience, 6,123–138.
Ma, N., Vandekerckhove, M., Van Hoeck, N., & Van Overwalle, F.(2012). Distinct recruitment of temporo-parietal junction and medial prefrontal cortex in ehavior understandingand trait identification., Social Neuroscience, 7,591–605.
Markel, C.; Wiener, J.,(2014). Attribution processes in parent–adolescent conflict in families of adolescents with and without ADHD. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 46(1), 40-48.
McArthur, L. A. (1972). The how and what of why: Some determinants and consequences of causal attribution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 22, 171-193.
Mitchell, J. P., Banaji, M. R., & Macrae, C. N. (2005). General and specific contributions of the medial prefrontal cortex to knowledge about mental states.Neuroimage, 28,757–762.
Moran, J. M., Jolly, E., & Mitchell, J. P. (2014). Spontaneous mentalizing predicts the fundamental attribution error. Journal of cognitive neuroscience,26(3), 569-576.
Momennejad, I., & Haynes, H.D.,(2012).Human anterior prefrontal cortex encodes the ‘what’ and ‘when’ of future intentions., NeuroImage, 61(1),139-148
Nakamura, K., Kawashima, R., Sato, N., Nakamura, A., Sugiura, M., Kato, T., ... & Zilles, K. (2000). Functional delineation of the human occipito-temporal areas related to face and scene processing. Brain, 123(9), 1903-1912.
Nelson, D. A., Hart, C. H., Yang, C., Olsen, J. A., & Jin, S. (2006). Aversive parenting in China: Associations with child physical and relational aggression.Child development, 77(3), 554-572.
Nigg, J. T. (1999). The ADHD response-inhibition deficit as measured by the stop task: Replication with DSM-IV combined type, extension, and qualification. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27, 393–402.
Nix, R. L., Pinderhughes, E. E., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S., & McFadyen-Ketchum, S. A. (1999). The relation between mothers' hostile attribution tendencies and children's externalizing behavior problems: The mediating role of mothers' harsh discipline practices. Child development, 896-909.
Rizzolatti G, Craighero L. The mirror-neuron system., Annual Review of Neuroscience., 2004;27:169–192.
Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. Advances in experimental social psychology, 10, 173-220.
Scoular, D., & Johnston, C. (2002). Mothers’ “on-line” attributions as predictors of parenting response to nonproblem boys and boys with ADHD behavior. Unpublished manuscript.
Seidel, E., Eickhoff, S. B., Kellermann, T., Schneider, F., Gur, R. C., Habel, U.,& Derntl, B. (2010). Who is to blame? Neural correlates of causal attribution in social situations. Social Neuroscience, 5(4), 335-350.
Sigel, I. E., & McGillicuddy-De Lisi, A. V. (2002). Parent beliefs are cognitions: The dynamic belief systems model. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 3. Being and becoming a parent (2nd ed., pp. 485–508). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Smith, J. D., Dishion, T. J., Shaw, D. S., & Wilson, M. N. (2015). Negative Relational Schemas Predict the Trajectory of Coercive Dynamics During Early Childhood. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 43(4), 693-703.
Snyder, J., Cramer, A., Afrank, J., & Patterson, G. R. (2005). The contributions of ineffective discipline and parental hostile attributions of child misbehavior to the development of conduct problems at home and school. Developmental Psychology, 41(1), 30.
Sobol, M.P., Ashbourne, D.T., Earn, B.M., Cunningham, C.E., (1989). Parents' attributions for achieving compliance from attention-deficit-disordered children Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 17(3), 359-369.
Sousa, A. D. (2013). Towards An Integrative Theory Of Consciousness: Part 1 (Neurobiological And Cognitive Models) Mens Sana Monographs, 11(1), 100-105.
Soufer R., Bremner J.D., Arrighi J.A., Cohen I., Zaret B.L., Burg M.M., Goldman-Rakic P. (1998).Cerebral cortical hyperactivation in response to mental stress in patients with coronary artery disease. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA.95:6454–6459.
Spunt, R. P., & Lieberman, M. D. (2013). The busy social brain evidence for automaticity and control in the neural systems supporting social cognition and action understanding. Psychological Science, 24(1), 80-86.
Sturge-Apple, M. L., Rogge, R. D., Skibo, M. A., Peltz, J. S., & Suor, J. H. (2015). A dual-process approach to the role of mother’s implicit and explicit attitudes toward their child in parenting models. Developmental psychology,51(3), 289-300.
Patterson, G. R. (2002). The early development of coercive family process. In J. B. Reid, G. R. Patterson & J. Snyder (Eds.), (pp. 25-44). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association.
Porrino, L.J., Rapoport, J.L., Behar, D., Sceery, W., Ismond, D.R., Bunney, W.E. Jr.(1983). A naturalistic assessment of the motor activity of hyperactive boys. I. Comparison with normal controls. Arch Gen Psychiatry 40(6):681-7.
Teicher, M. H., Ito, Y, Gold, C. A., & Barber, N. (1996). Objective measurement of hyperactivity and attentional problems in ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35 (3), 334-342. Google Scholar Medline
Trope, Y. (1986). Identification and inferential processes in dispositional attribution. Psychological Review, 93(3), 239-257.
Weary-Bradley, G. (1978). Self-serving biases in the attribution process: A reexamination of the fact or fiction question. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 56–71.
Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92(4), 548-573.
Zaitchik, D., Walker, C., Miller, S., LaViolette, P., Feczko, E., & Dickerson, B. C. (2010). Mental state attribution and the temporoparietal junction: an fMRI study comparing belief, emotion, and perception. Neuropsychologia, 48(9), 2528-2536.