拖延是個普遍且會造成負面影響的問題，為了解決拖延的問題，坊間書籍提供多種自救解方，其中常見的方法中，就常包含了拆分任務、設立子目標、設定明確執行步驟的時間、想像從事任務的過程這類的做法，本研究將這些方法統稱為「具體思考」。依據理論，這些具體思考可能有效的改善拖延的問題，然而目前實證證據仍不多，僅有少數實驗提出支持的證據，多以實驗室中人為指定的目標任務來檢測其效果，少有研究以個人真實日常生活中或學業任務之拖延情形，來檢測具體思考是否能有具生態效度的改善，甚至也有些研究結果不支持具體思考可以改善拖延行為。此外，過去研究多以個人整體性的主觀拖延量表之分數作為改善拖延的檢測指標，然而拖延可能依時間和情境有所改變，卻少有研究以目標任務的主觀拖延感受和拖延行為，作為改善拖延的指標檢測。因此，本研究欲驗證具體思考是否能改善個人日常或學業任務上的拖延感受和行為。我們設計了一個線上實驗讓參與者自選一個個人的大型任務，比較經具體思考練習後的參與者，是否會減少拖延行為和感受。本研究以未在預計開始時間開始從事任務的「延遲開始」行為，和未在預計完成時間完成任務的「延遲完成」行為，分別作為兩種拖延行為的指標；另量測「自覺在目標任務上拖延的程度」作為主觀拖延感受的指標。本研究也探討主觀拖延感受與客觀拖延行為之間的關係。研究的結果並未發現具體思考可顯著改善拖延感受和行為的證據，我們認為可能是因為實驗設計上的限制以致於沒有足夠的檢定力來呈現具體思考可改善拖延，我們並提出未來研究可再調整實驗設計的方向，以利更有效的驗證其效果。我們也認為在生活中的應用上，欲解決拖延的問題時，可能除了如以往研究著重的，可讓人們提早完成任務外，也應讓人減少預計和實際開始從事任務的時間差距，及提早開始從事任務，或可有更佳的改善拖延的效果。

Procrastination is a common problem that can have negative impact on our daily lives . A variety of self help solutions have been proposed to solve the problem of procrastination , including breaking task s into small pieces, setting sub-goals, scheduling specific steps of goals, imagining the process e s of executing the tasks , etc. In the present study, this group of method s was referred to as “concrete thinking”. To date , whether concrete thinking can actually reduce procrastination is still unclear . Few studies have examined its effects on personal daily or academic tasks. Secondly, few studies utilized objective procrastination behavior and subjective procrastination feeling on a target task as the indicators of intervention. Therefore, we designed an online experiment to examine whether concrete thinking can reduce procrastination behaviors (delayed start/completion time) and perceived procrastination feeling on personal tasks. Moreover, the study also explored the relation between subjective procrastination feeling and objective procrastination behavior. Our results did not show any difference of time points (i.e., expected/actual start/completion time) and perceived feeling between experimental group and control group, suggesting that concrete thinking could not reduce the procrastination behaviors and feeling . Considering the limitation of the present study, future studies should modify the experimental design and verify the effect further. We also found the correlation between perceived procrastination feeling on the target task and delayed /actual start time. Thus, how to make people start performing tasks at the scheduled time or even earlier is also an important issue to solve the problem of procrastination.

史迪爾（2011）：《不拖延的人生》（姬健梅譯）。先覺出版。（原著出版年：2010）[Steel, P. (2011). The procrastination equation: How to stop putting things off and start getting stuff done (C. M. Chi, Trans.). Hsien-Chueh. (Original work published 2010).]
Abbasi, I. S., & Alghamdi, N. G. (2015). The prevalence, predictors, causes, treatment, and implications of procrastination behaviors in general, academic, and work setting. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 7(1), 59–66. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijps.v7n1p59
Asri, D. N., Setyosari, P., Hitipeuw, I., & Chusniyah, T. (2017). The academic procrastination in junior high school students’ mathematics learning: A qualitative study. International Education Studies, 10(9), 70–77. http://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v10n9p70
Bandura, A., & Schunk, D. H. (1981). Cultivating competence, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41(3), 586–598. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.41.3.586
Beswick, G., Rothblum, E. D., & Mann, L. (1988). Psychological antecedents of student procrastination. Australian Psychologist, 23(2), 207–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050068808255605
Buehler, R., & Griffin, D. (2003). Planning, personality, and prediction: The role of future focus in optimistic time predictions. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 92(1), 80–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-5978(03)00089-X
Buehler, R., Griffin, D., & Ross, M. (1994). Exploring the “planning fallacy”: Why people underestimate their task completion times. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(3), 366–381. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.3.366
Byrne, A., Dowd, K., Blake, D. P., & Cairns, A. J. G. (2006). There’s no time like the present: The cost of delaying retirement saving. Financial Services Review, 15(3), 213–231.
Dey, S., Newell, B. R., & Moulds, M. L. (2018). The relative effects of abstract versus concrete thinking on decision-making in depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 110, 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2018.08.004
Ellis, A., & Knaus, W. J. (1979). Overcoming procrastination: Or how to think and act rationally in spite of life’s inevitable hassles. Signet.
Ferrari, J. R. (1993). Christmas and procrastination: Explaining lack of diligence at a “real-world” task deadline. Personality and Individual Differences, 14(1), 25–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(93)90171-X
Freund, A. M., & Hennecke, M. (2015). On means and ends: The role of goal focus in successful goal pursuit. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 24(2), 149–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414559774
Fujita, K., Trope, Y., Liberman, N., & Levin-Sagi, M. (2006). Construal levels and self-control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(3), 351–367. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.3.351
Gollwitzer, P., & Brandstätter, V. (1997). Implementation intentions and effective goal pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 186–199. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.186
Gollwitzer, P. (1993). Goal achievement: The role of intentions. European Review of Social Psychology, 4(1), 141–185. https://doi.org/10.1080/14792779343000059
Gollwitzer, P., & Sheeran, P. (2006). Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A meta‐analysis of effects and processes. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 69–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(06)38002-1
Grunschel, C., Patrzek, J., & Fries, S. (2013). Exploring reasons and consequences of academic procrastination: An interview study. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(3), 841–861. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-012-0143-4
Häfner, A., Oberst, V., & Stock, A. (2014). Avoiding procrastination through time management: An experimental intervention study. Educational Studies, 40(3), 352–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2014.899487
Howell, A. J., Watson, D. C., Powell, R. A., & Buro, K. (2006). Academic procrastination: The pattern and correlates of behavioural postponement. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(8), 1519–1530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.023
Huang, S., Jin, L., & Zhang, Y. (2017). Step by step: Sub-goals as a source of motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 141, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.05.001
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1982). Intuitive prediction: Biases and corrective procedures. In D. Kahneman, P. Slovic, & A. Tversky (Eds.), Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases (pp. 414-421). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511809477.031
Kanten, A. B. (2011). The effect of construal level on predictions of task duration. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47(6), 1037–1047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.04.005
Kim, K. R., & Seo, E. H. (2015). The relationship between procrastination and academic performance: A meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 82, 26–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.02.038
Klassen, R. M., Krawchuk, L. L., & Rajani, S. (2008). Academic procrastination of undergraduates: Low self-efficacy to self-regulate predicts higher levels of procrastination. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33(4), 915–931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2007.07.001
Klingsieck, K. B., Grund, A., Schmid, S., & Fries, S. (2013). Why students procrastinate: A qualitative approach. Journal of College Student Development, 54(4), 397–412. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2013.0060
Koole, S., & Spijker, M. van’t. (2000). Overcoming the planning fallacy through willpower: Effects of implementation intentions on actual and predicted task-completion times. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30(6), 873–888. https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-0992(200011/12)30:6<873::AID-EJSP22>3.0.CO;2-U
Krause, K., & Freund, A. M. (2014). Delay or procrastination – A comparison of self-report and behavioral measures of procrastination and their impact on affective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 63, 75–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.050
Krause, K., & Freund, A. M. (2016). It’s in the means: Process focus helps against procrastination in the academic context. Motivation and Emotion, 40(3), 422–437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-016-9541-2
Kruger, J., & Evans, M. (2004). If you don’t want to be late, enumerate: Unpacking reduces the planning fallacy. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(5), 586–598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2003.11.001
Lay, C., & Silverman, S. (1996). Trait procrastination, anxiety, and dilatory behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 21(1), 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(96)00038-4
Liberman, N., Trope, Y., McCrea, S. M., & Sherman, S. J. (2007). The effect of level of construal on the temporal distance of activity enactment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(1), 143–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.12.009
Latham, G. P., & Locke, E. A. (1991). Self-regulation through goal setting. Organizational behavior and human decision processes, 50(2), 212-247.
McCrea, S. M., Liberman, N., Trope, Y., & Sherman, S. J. (2008). Construal level and procrastination. Psychological Science, 19(12), 1308–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02240.x
Milgram, N. A., Dangour, W., & Ravi, A. (1992). Situational and personal determinants of academic procrastination. The Journal of General Psychology, 119(2), 123–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1992.9921166
Moon, S. M., & Illingworth, A. J. (2005). Exploring the dynamic nature of procrastination: A latent growth curve analysis of academic procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 38(2), 297–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2004.04.009
Pham, L. B., & Taylor, S. E. (1999). From thought to action: Effects of process-versus outcome-based mental simulations on performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(2), 250–260. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167299025002010
Pychyl, T. A., Lee, J. M., Thibodeau, R., & Blunt, A. (2000). Five days of emotion: An experience sampling study of undergraduate student procrastination. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 15(5), 239–254.
Saposnik, G. (2009). Acute stroke management: Avoiding procrastination, the best way to optimize care delivery. European Journal of Neurology, 16(12), 1251–1252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-1331.2009.02761.x
Seo, E., Patall, E. A., Henderson, M. D., & Steingut, R. R. (2018). The effects of goal origin and implementation intentions on goal commitment, effort, and performance. The Journal of Experimental Education, 86(3), 386–401. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2016.1277334
Shaw, A., & Zhang, J. J. (2021). A Rasch analysis of the Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS). Frontiers in Psychology, 11(615341), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.615341
Solomon, L. J., & Rothblum, E. D. (1984). Academic procrastination: Frequency and cognitive-behavioral correlates. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31(4), 503–509. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.31.4.503
Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65
Steel, P. (2010). Arousal, avoidant and decisional procrastinators: Do they exist? Personality and Individual Differences, 48(8), 926–934. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.02.025
Steel, P., Brothen, T., & Wambach, C. (2001). Procrastination and personality, performance, and mood. Personality and Individual Differences, 30(1), 95–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00013-1
Steel, P., & Ferrari, J. (2013). Sex, education and procrastination: An epidemiological study of procrastinators’ characteristics from a global sample. European Journal of Personality, 27(1), 51–58. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.1851
Stock, J., & Cervone, D. (1990). Proximal goal-setting and self-regulatory processes. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14(5), 483–498. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172969
Svartdal, F., Granmo, S., & Faerevaag, F. S. (2018). On the behavioral side of procrastination: Exploring behavioral delay in real-life settings. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(746), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00746
Svartdal, F., Klingsieck, K. B., Steel, P., & Gamst-Klaussen, T. (2020). Measuring implemental delay in procrastination: Separating onset and sustained goal striving. Personality and Individual Differences, 156(109762), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109762
Svartdal, F., Sæle, R. G., Dahl, T. I., Nemtcan, E., & Gamst-Klaussen, T. (2021). Study Habits and Procrastination: The Role of Academic Self-Efficacy. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 0(0), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2021.1959393
Svartdal, F., & Steel, P. (2017). Irrational delay revisited: Examining five procrastination scales in a global sample. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(1927), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01927
Taylor, S. E., Pham, L. B., Rivkin, I. D., & Armor, D. A. (1998). Harnessing the imagination: Mental simulation, self-regulation, and coping. American Psychologist, 53(4), 429–439. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.53.4.429
Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963
Vallacher, R., & Wegner, D. (1987). What do people think they’re doing? Action identification and human-behavior. Psychological Review, 94(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.94.1.3
Van Eerde, W. (2000). Procrastination: Self-regulation in initiating aversive goals. Applied Psychology, 49(3), 372–389. https://doi.org/10.1111/1464-0597.00021
Van Eerde, W., & Klingsieck, K. B. (2018). Overcoming procrastination? A meta-analysis of intervention studies. Educational Research Review, 25, 73–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.09.002
Visser, L., Korthagen, F. A. J., & Schoonenboom, J. (2018). Differences in learning characteristics between students with high, average, and low levels of academic procrastination: Students’ views on factors influencing their learning. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(808), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00808
Wiese, J., Buehler, R., & Griffin, D. (2016). Backward planning: Effects of planning direction on predictions of task completion time. Judgment and Decision Making, 11(2), 147–167.
Worthley, D. L., Cole, S. R., Esterman, A., Mehaffey, S., Roosa, N. M., Smith, A., Turnbull, D., & Young, G. P. (2006). Screening for colorectal cancer by faecal occult blood test: Why people choose to refuse. Internal Medicine Journal, 36(9), 607–610. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1445-5994.2006.01155.x
Zhang, H., Chan, D. K.-S., & Guan, Y. (2013). Plans are more helpful when one perseveres: The moderating role of persistence in the relationship between implementation intentions and goal progress. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 35(2), 231–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2013.764298