過去鳥類舌部形態與其食性的研究，主要集中在具有特殊舌頭構造的專食性鳥類，其他雜食性鳥類的舌頭通常不具有特殊構造，至今仍不清楚雜食性鳥類具有哪些類型的舌部形態，以及其食性與舌部形態是否具有相關性。本研究以台灣山區常見的燕雀目鳥類為對象，探討舌部形態與食性的關係，並瞭解食物選擇受到何種舌部形態特質的影響較大；此外，也探討鳥類食性在不同空間與時間上是否有差異。結果發現：以27種鳥類155個舌部標本共13個形態特質進行歸類，可分為修長扁平形、刷狀卷曲形、三角形與短小厚質形四類。由野外食性調查發現：鳥類在不同地點間的食性差異，以非生殖季時鳥類具有食性差異的比例較高，生殖季時比例較低。多數鳥類食性在不同季節間有明顯差異，生殖季（四~七月）時主食無脊椎動物，到了非生殖季（十~二月）則主食植物性食物。十六種鳥類在生殖季的食性，可分為三類：（1）主食無脊椎動物（>80%）；（2）取食較多無脊椎動物（60-70%）和部分果實（26%）；（3）取食無脊椎動物和果實各半。十七種鳥類在非生殖季時的食性，亦可分為三大類群：（1）主食無脊椎動物；（2）主食果實；（3）主食花蜜。14種鳥類的舌部形態與其非生殖季食性具有顯著相關，其中，僅舌分叉長及3/4位置的舌寬與其食性較有關係，可解釋非生殖季食性約36%的解釋變異量，也就是分叉長較長的舌頭屬於刷狀捲曲舌形，主食花蜜，以冠羽畫眉為代表；3/4位置舌寬較大的舌形，主食果實，以黃腹琉璃為代表。本研究認為鳥類在非生殖季除了主要取食特定食物之外，亦取食其他種類食物，此現象可能是造成舌部形態與非生殖季食性顯著相關值僅0.62的主要原因。因此，本研究推論廣食性燕雀目鳥類在非生殖季的食性可能也受到其舌部形態─舌刷長與3/4位置舌寬的影響，進而產生三種類群的食性。

Many studies have been conducted to describe the specialized tongue structures of birds with specific diets in detail. The function of specialized tongues for foraging efficient for specific foods has been shown. Additionally, smaller studies have illustrated that omnivorous birds usually have simple tongues. However, we do not understand clearly if omnivorous birds have other types of tongues outside of simple forms and if their tongue morphology is correlative with their diets. This study investigated (1) the relationship between tongue morphology and diet in 14 passerines birds in Taiwan and (2) which tongue character was most correlative with diet. Moreover, I compared the diet of a single species at different places (sites) and times (seasons). Clustering results of tongue morphology on 27 species showed four types, including flat-slender form, brush-tipped form, flat-triangular form and short-thick form. The diets of 2 species had significant differences between sites during the breeding season (Apr. to Jul.); the diets of 9 species also had significant differences between sites during the non-breeding season (Oct. to Feb. next year). 9 species showed significantly different diets between seasons because they foraged mainly for invertebrates during the breeding season and plant foods during the non-breeding season. The diets during the breeding season of 16 species showed three kinds, including (1) mainly invertebrates (>80%), (2) more invertebrates (60-70%) and less fruits (26%), and (3) equal invertebrates and fruits (50%). 17 species had three kinds of diets during the non-breeding season: (1) mainly invertebrates, (2) mainly fruits, and (3) mainly nectar. This study demonstrated that the diets of 14 passerines during the non-breeding season were significantly correlative with tongue morphology (r=0.424, P <0.05) and were most correlative with brush length and width of the 3/4 position (r=0.62, P<0.05). For example, Yuhina brunneiceps’s primary diet is nectar and it has the brush-tipped tongue with the longest brush length. Niltava vivida mainly forages for fruits and has a tongue with longer width of the 3/4 position. The significant correlation between the tongues and the diets of 14 passerine species was not very high compared to nectarivores (e.g. honeyeaters and sunbirds) perhaps because they forage for varied kinds of foods during the non-breeding season. Therefore, two tongue characteristics: brush length and width of the 3/4 position very probably affect the diets of omnivorous passerines and also make three different groups of diets during this season.

呂福原、歐辰雄。2005。翠巒錦簇-玉山國家公園植物解說。內政部營建署玉山國家公園管理處。
李佩吟。2003。福山試驗林繡眼畫眉於繁殖季覓食、鳴唱及巢位棲地之比較。國立台灣大學森林學研究所碩士論文。
周富三、楊智凱、廖俊奎、陳添財、楊遠波。2005。太魯閣國家公園高山地區植被類型之分類。國家公園學報 15: 43-63。
許皓捷。2003。台灣山區鳥類群聚的空間及季節變異。國立台灣大學動物學研究所博士論文。
許皓捷。2006。太魯閣國家公園鳥類群聚之研究。內政部營建署太魯閣國家公園管理處委託研究報告。
陳炤杰、周蓮香。1999。福山試驗林森林鳥類之食性觀察。台灣林業科學 14: 275-287。
楊勝任、林坤益。2006。藤枝森林遊樂區植群生態研究。中華林學季刊 39: 43-55。
Bishop, C., and P. Butler. 1995. Physiological modelling of oxygen consumption in birds during flight. Journal of Experimental Biology 198:2153-2163.
Bock, W. J. 1999. Functional and evolutionary morphology of woodpeckers. Ostrich 70:23-31.
Bock, W. J. 2001. Functional morphology of the woodpeckers feeding apparatus in H. M. Dutta, and J. S. D. Munshi, eds. Vertebrate Functional Morphology: Horizon of Research in the 21st Century, Science Publishers.
Borghesio, L., and P. Laiolo. 2004. Seasonal foraging ecology in a forest avifauna of northern Kenya. Journal of Tropical Ecology 20:145-155.
Carothers, J. H. 1982. Effects of trophic morphology and behavior on foraging rates of 3 Hawaiian Honeycreepers. Oecologia 55:157-159.
Cheke, R. A., C. F. Mann, and R. Allen. 2001. Morphology, Pages 16-18 in R. Allen, ed. Sunbirds: a Guide to the Sunbirds, Flowerpeckers, Spiderhunters and Sugarbirds of the World. London, Christopher Helm.
Ding, T.-S., H.-C. Liao, and H.-W. Yuan. 2008. Breeding bird community composition in different successional vegetation in the montane coniferous forest zone of Taiwan. Forest Ecology and Management 255:2038-2048.
Evans, H. E., and J. B. Heiser. 2004. Waht's Inside: anatomy and physiology in S. Podulka, R. W. Rohrbaugh, and J. R. Bonney, eds. Handbook of bird biology, Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology.
Ewald, P. W., and W. A. Williams. 1982. Function of the bill and tongue in nectar uptake by humingbirds. Auk 99:573-576.
Forshler, M. I. 2007. Seasonal variation in the diet of citril finches Carduelis citrinella: are they specialists or generalists? European Journal of Wildlife Research 53:190-194.
Froget, G., P. J. Butler, Y. Handrich, and A. J. Woakes. 2001. Heart rate as an indicator of oxygen consumption: influence of body condition in the king penguin. Journal of Experimental Biology 204:2133-2144.
Gill, F. B. 2007. Physiology Ornithology. New York W.H. Freeman.
Gillooly, J. F., J. H. Brown, G. B. West, V. M. Savage, and E. L. Charnov. 2001. Effects of size and temperature on metabolic rate. Science 293:2248-2251.
Heinrich, B., and P. H. Raven. 1972. Energetics and pollination ecology. Science 176:597-602.
Hejl, S. J., and J. Verner. 1990. Within-season and yearly variations in avian foraging locations, Pages 202-209 in M. L. Morrison, C. J. Ralph, J. Verner, and J. R. J. Jehl, eds. Avian foraging: theory, methodology, and applications. Studies in Avian Biology, the Cooper Ornithological Society.
Herrera, L. G., K. A. Hobson, M. Rodriguez, and P. Hernandez. 2003. Trophic partitioning in tropical rain forest birds: insights from stable isotope analysis. Oecologia 136:439-444.
Kimberly M. Holbrook, Thomas B. Smith, and Britta D. Hardesty. 2002. Implications of long-distance movements of frugivorous rain forest hornbills. Ecography 25:745-749.
Kingsolver, J. G., and T. L. Daniel. 1983. Mechanical determinants of nectar feeding strategy in hummingbirds: energetics, tongue morphology, and licking behavior. Oecologia 60:214-226.
Klopfer, P. H., and R. H. MacArthur. 1960. Niche size and faunal diversity. The American Naturalist 94:293-300.
Lucas, F. A. 1896. The taxonomic value of the tongue in birds. Auk 13:109-115.
MacArthur, R. H., and J. W. MacArthur. 1961. On bird species diversity. Ecology 42:594-598.
Martin, T. E. 1987. Food as a Limit on Breeding Birds: A Life-History Perspective. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 18:453-487.
McLelland, J. 1979a. Digestive system: bill, Pages 84-89 in A. S. King, and J. McLelland, eds. Form and Function in Birds. London, Academic Press.
McLelland, J. 1979b. Digestive system: tongue, Pages 74-79 in A. S. King, and J. McLelland, eds. Form and Function in Birds. London, Academic Press.
Murakami, M. 1998. Foraging habitat shift in the narcissus flycatcher, Ficedula narcissina, due to the response of herbivorous insects to the strengthening defenses of canopy trees. Ecological Research 13:73-82.
Paton, D. C., and B. G. Collins. 1989. Bills and tongues of nectar-feeding birds: a review of morphology, function and performance, with intercontinental comparisons. Australian Journal of Ecology 14:473-506.
Peters, R. H. 1983, The Ecological Implications of Body Size, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, USA.
Rechier, H. F. 1990. Specialist or generalist: avian response to spatial and temporal changes in resources: overview, Pages 333-336 in M. L. Morrison, C. J. Ralph, J. Verner, and J. R. J. Jehl, eds. Avian foraging: theory, methodology, and applications, the Cooper Ornithological Society.
Rio, C. M. d., and W. H. Karasov. 1990. Digestion strategies in nectar- and fruiteating birds and the sugar composition of plant rewards. The American Naturalist 136:618-637.
Schondube, J. E., and C. Martínez del Rio. 2002. The flowerpiercers' hook: an experimental test of an evolutionary trade-off. The Royal Society 270:195-198.
Shiu, H. J., T. Z. Ding, J. E. Sheu, R. S. Lin, C. N. Koh, and P. F. Lee. 2005. Morphological characters of bird species in Taiwan. Taiwania 50:80-92.
Simpson, G. G. 1964. Species density of north American recent mammals. Systematic Zoology 13:57-73.
Timewell, C. A. R., and R. M. Nally. 2004. Diurnal foraging-mode shifts and food availability in nectarivore assemblages during winter. Austral Ecology 29:264-277.
Twedt, D. J., W. J. Bleier, and G. M. Linz. 1991. Geographic and temporal variation in the diet of Yellow-headed Blackbirds. Condor 93:975-986.
Ward, S., C. M. Bishop, A. J. Woakes, and P. J. Butler. 2002. Heart rate and the rate of oxygen consumption of flying and walking barnacle geese (Branta leucopsis) and bar-headed geese (Anser indicus). Journal of Experimental Biology 205:3347-3356.
Wiens, J. A., and J. T. Rotenberry. 1981. Habitat associations and community structure of birds in shrubsteppe environments. Ecological Monographs 51:21-42.
Wilson, D. S. 1975. The adequacy of body size as a niche difference. The American Naturalist 109:769-784.
Zhang, S., L. Yang, X. Yang, and J. Yang. 2007. Molecular phylogeny of the yuhinas (Sylviidae: Yuhina): a paraphyletic group of babblers including Zosterops and Philippine Stachyris. Journal of Ornithology 148:417-426.