GIS技術近幾年在防救災資訊之管理、流通與應用上已有具體成效，然而，由於各業務單位之專業分工、組織關係複雜且各自對於防救災資源之需求亦不同，在面對防救災資料之多源、龐大數量、時空(Spatial-Temporal)特性與異質性(Heterogeneity)等課題時，往往缺乏整體運作之策略，形成各行其是之結果，如何保持防救災資訊共享與整合應用之流暢因此成為防救災體系永續發展之關鍵挑戰。空間資料基礎建設(Spatial Data Infrastructure, SDI)以基礎設施之概念經由標準、規範與組織協議的方式促進地理資訊之共享，目前已為各國地理資訊系統開發之目標。但SDI引入防救災領域，仍須進一步評估防救災資料特性與其防救災應用，本研究擬由服務與SDI之觀點，探討防救災領域發展SDI在技術面與資料面上之策略。
本研究將以SDI觀點檢視防救災資訊之流通與應用架構，並針對其中關鍵因素提出具體之策略與建議。本研究認為在現行防救災業務分工及資料設計基礎上，必須發展之關鍵作為包括防救災資料內容之開放及標準化、基礎於標準化詮釋資料之目錄服務架構、開放網路服務介面及組織協同合作關係之界定，由此建立一個基礎於網際網路技術的透明資源分享架構，有效結合相關單位，形成一個由資料生產到後續應用的完備管道。本研究針對其中資料內容之設計與詮釋資料之建立等兩項重點工作，由實務的觀點提出執行之規劃與分析，以佐證本研究架構之可行性。
本研究針對不同特性之防救災資料發展各自資料標準化與詮釋資料樣版策略，具體實踐以詮釋資料結合標準化網路服務之節點式分享架構，各節點所產製之資源可透過本研究提出之策略快速於SDI架構內流通，且各需求單位與生產單位之間的防救災資料交流，在各個階段都可透過共同之程序進行跨平台之資源搜尋並即時取得感興趣之服務，藉以一舉提升防救災領域於平日及應變之運作效率。本研究基於資料共同特性擬定之標準化策略，可為防救災領域規劃各單位防救災資源共享方針。此外，本研究提出之開放式防救災資訊共享機制，也可為其他地理資訊領域借鑑，做為發展跨單位資訊交流之參考雛形，進一步提升各領域之資源共享與應用發展。

Despite GIS technologies have been widely used in disaster-related domains in recent years, the sharing of multi-sources, huge volume and heterogeneous disaster information remain major obstacles to the sustainable development of nation-level disaster management systems. Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) has been well accepted as an excellent method for the efficient management of interdisciplinary resource sharing, but its success will heavily depend on the willingness of changes and development of effective transformation strategies. From the perspective of SDI, we comprehensively examine the major factors of disaster information sharing and proposed a standard-based and service-oriented approach, so as to establish a transparent and collaborative data sharing and application environment among participating organizations. Standards will serve as the core of the distribution mechanism, which enable disaster information from different organizations to be easily found, located, evaluated, accessed and used in an interoperable fashion. Three major contributions can be summarized: 1) the development of domain content standards help to simplify the heterogeneity problems between data from different organizations and facilitate easier interpretation; 2) the use of metadata template tremendously improve both the quality and efficiency for establishing standardized metadata; 3) standard-based catalogue and data access services make the development of a quick, powerful and integrated sharing mechanism among related organizations possible. In this research, we successfully demonstrate an innovated SDI-based approach can remove many current sharing barriers of disaster information, reduce the demands of man power and spending cost, improve the automatic level of information sharing and processing, and facilitate better cooperated relationship between different organizations. These standard-based advantages will provide an immediate help to the future cloud computing and big data research in the field of disaster reduction.

內政部. (1997). 國土資訊系統基礎環境建置計畫.
內政部資訊中心. (2011). 台灣詮釋資料標準.
內政部資訊中心. (2013). 國土資訊系統資料標準訂定參考手冊.
內政部資訊中心. (2009). 國土資訊系統 資料品質參考手冊: 內政部資訊中心.
内閣府. (2012). 平成24年版防災白書-防災に関してとった措置の概況平成24年度の防災に関する計画.
内閣府. (2011). 平成 23 年版 防災白書－「防災に関してとった措置の概況」及び「平成 23 年度の防災に関する計画」.
吳岸明, & 張桂祥. (2014). 福衛二號影像處理系統研發之回顧與展. 航測及遙測學刊, 18, 1-12.
宋關福. (2012). 从光环曲线看GIS平台软件技术发展趋势.
李維森. (2010). 重大災變的政策因應：防災與救災策略 - 由莫拉克到梅姬看全面防災的需求. Paper presented at the 災害救助與社會工作研討會, 台北市.
李鎮洋, 賴文基, 陳振宇, 黃效禹, & 郭力行. (2011). 莫拉克颱風複合型災害發生歷程的時空重建—以小林村深層崩塌為例. 中華水土保持學報, 42(4), 313-324.
洪榮宏, 黃敏郎, & 葉耀鮮. (2012). 以樣板提昇防救災詮釋資料建置之有利因素分析. 中華防災學刊, 4(2), 189-205.
洪榮宏, & 葉耀鮮. (2011). 以領域樣版促進高效能TWSMP詮釋資料建置之研究-以國土利用資料為例. 地籍測量, 30, 17-34.
馬士元, & 林永峻. (2009). 強化中央災害應變中心協調聯繫整合功能之研究: 內政部消防署.
馬彥彬, 李長晏, 紀俊臣, 劉鴻陞, 曾士瑋, 謝岱芬, & 林盈甄. (2014). 強化地方政府災害防救效能之研究(委託研究報告): 國家發展委員會.
張忠吉. (2010). 國土資訊系統（NGIS）現階段發展策略與思維. 檔案季刊, 9, 18-27.
張莉雪, 陳伯傳, 周士傑, & 陳乃宇. (2014). 福衛二號排程與災防雲端應用服務 航測及遙測學刊, 18, 13-27.
章光明, 吳秀光, 洪文玲, 鄧子正, 張淵菘, 詹立煒, . . . 陳敬華. (2011). 中央與地方災害防救組織與職能之研究: 行政院研究發展考核委員會.
郭育麟, 周士傑, & 黃楓台. (2014). 福衛五號衛星遙測任務排程系統. Paper presented at the 2014 年台灣地理資訊學會年會暨學術研討會.
陳崇岳. (2012). 國內外災害防救體系比較及我國未來發展. Paper presented at the 消防學術與實務研討會.
黄润秋, & 李为乐. (2008). “5.12”汶川大地震触发地质灾害的发育分布规律研. 岩石力学与工程学报, 27(12).
黃旭初. (2010). 歐盟空間資訊基礎建設(INSPIRE).
黃俊宏, 包正芬, 張子瑩, & 蘇文瑞. (2015). 國土資訊系統-災害防救應用推廣分組之推動成果. 災害防救科技與知識專欄.
黃灝雄. (2007). 政大附屬校區之衛星定位坐標控制網成果報告.
楊錦松, & 洪榮宏. (2009). TWSMP詮釋資料標準之應用探討. 國土資訊系統通訊, 71, 35-43.
鄧子正, 沈鴻禧, 毛節平, 王柚宸, & 梁灝容. (2012). 未來十年我國災害管理發展趨勢及因應策略之研究 內政部消防署.
鄭明淵, & 饒正. (2011). 公路防救災決策支援系統建立之研究: 交通部運輸研究所港灣技術研究中心.
謝明志, 曾文傑, 張益三, 周士雄, 黃敏郎, & 戴大熊. (2006). 運用地理資訊系統技術建立港灣地區防救災體系之研究(1/4)－以高雄港區為例(委託研究報告). In 交通部運輸研究所 (Ed.).
Aalders, H. J. G. L., & Hunter, G. J. (2002). Spatial Data Standards. Advanced Geographic Information Systems, 2.
Akeno, K. (2006). Country Report 2006 (Based on the PCGIAP-Data Integration Template 2006) Integration of Built and Natural Environmental Datasets within a National SDI. Japan: Geographical Survey Institute, Military of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, Government of Japan
Alani, M. M. (2014). Guide to OSI and TCP/IP Models: Springer.
Alessandro Annoni, Lars Bernard, John Douglas, Joseph Greenwood, Irene Laiz, Michael Lloyd, . . . Thomas Usländer. (2005). Orchestra: Developing a Unified Open Architecture for Risk Management Applications. In Peter van Oosterom, Siyka Zlatanova & Elfriede M. Fendel (Eds.), Geo-information for Disaster Management: Springer.
Ali Mansourian, Abbas Rajabifard, & Mohammad Javad Valadan Zoej. (2005). SDI conceptual modeling for disaster management. Paper presented at the the ISPRS Hangzhou 2005 Workshop Service and Application of Spatial Data Infrastructure, Hangzhou, China.
Amdahl, G. (2002). Disaster Response: GIS for Public Safety. from http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/winter0102articles/gis-homeland.html
Andre Zergera, & David Ingle Smith. (2003). Impediments to using GIS for real-time disaster decision support. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 123-141.
ANZLIC. (2014). The Australian and New Zealand Foundation Spatial Data Framework: Making common foundation data ubiquitous across Australia and New Zealand.: ANZLIC-the Spatial Information Council.
ANZLIC. (2001). ANZLIC Metadata Guidelines: Core metadata elements for geographic data in Australia and New Zealand.
Askew, D., Evans, S., Matthews, R., & Swanton, P. (2005). MAGIC: a geoportal for the English countryside. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 29, 71-85.
Bai, Y., Yang, C., Guo, L., & Cheng, Q. (2003). OpenGIS WMS-based prototype system of Spatial Information Search Engine. Paper presented at the IEEE.
Baird, M. E. (2010). The "Phases" of Emergency Management: Vanderbilt Center for Transportation Research.
Bartha, G., & Kocsis, S. (2011). Standardization of Geographic Data: the European Inspire Directive. European Journal of Geography, 2(2), 79-89.
Bastrakova, I. V., Ardlie, N., & Regan, J. (2013). Geoscience Australia Community Metadata Profile of ISO 19115:2005.
Batcheller, J. K., Gittings, B. M., & Dunfey, R. I. (2009). A Method for Automating Geospatial Dataset Metadata. Future Internet, 1, 28-46.
Beaumont, P., Longley, P. A., & Maguire, D. J. (2005). Geographic information portals --a UK perspective. Computers, Environment andUrban Systems, 29, 49-69.
Bernard, L., Kanellopoulos, I., Annoni, A., & Smits, P. (2005). The European geoportal -- one step towards the establishment of a European Spatial Data Infrastructure. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 29, 15-31.
Bishr, M., & Janowicz, K. (2010). Can we Trust Information? - The Case of Volunteered Geographic Information. Paper presented at the Future Internet Symposium, Berlin, Germany.
Boll, S., Klas, W., & Sheth, A. (1998). Overview on Using Metadata to manage Multimedia Data. In A. P. Sheth & W. Klas (Eds.), Multimedia Data Management: Using Metadata to Integrate and Apply Digital Media.
Bray, T., Paoli, J., Sperberg, C. M., Maler, E., Yergeau, F., & Cowan, J. (2006). Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.1 (Second Edition). In W3C (Ed.): W3C.
Bruzewicz, A. J. (2003). Remote sensing imagery for emergency management. In C. S. L, R. D. B & W. T. J (Eds.), Geographical Dimensions of Terrorism (pp. 87-97). New York.
Chan, L. M., & Zeng, M. L. (2006). Metadata Interoperability and Standardization-A Study of Methodology Part I - Achieving Interoperability at the Schema Level. D-Lib Magazine, 12.
Clarke, K. C., McLafferty, S. L., & Tempalski, B. J. (1996). On Epidemiology and Geographic Information Systems: A Review and Discussion of Future Directions. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 2(2), 85-92.
Coleman, D. D. J., & McLaughlin, D. J. (1998). Defining Global Geospatial Data Infrastructure (GGDI):
Components, Stakeholders and Interfaces. University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N.B., CANADA.
Cova, T. J. (1999). GIS in emergency management. In Citeseer (Ed.), Geographical information systems.
Craglia, M., & Annoni, A. (2007). INSPIRE: An Innovative Approach to the Development of Spatial Data Infrastructures in Europe.
Crompvoets, J., Wachowicz, M., Bree, F. d., & Bregt, A. (2004). IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF THE INSPIRE GEO-PORTAL Paper presented at the 10th EC GI & GIS Workshop, Warsaw, Poland.
Curtis, A., Mills, J. W., Blackburn, J. K., Pine, J. C., & Kennedy, B. (2006). Louisiana State University Geographic Information System Support of Hurricane Katrina Recovery Operations. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 24, 203-221.
Dash, N. (1997). The Use of Geographic Information Systems in Disaster Research. International Journal of Emergencies and Disasters, 15, 135-146.
DeCapua, C., & Bhaduri, B. (2007). Applications of Geospatial Technology in International Disasters and During Hurricane Katrina Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
Donohue, K. (2002). Using GIS for all-hazard emergency management
Drabek, T. E. (1991). The Evolution of Emergency Management. In T. E. Drabek & G. J. Hoetmer (Eds.), Emergency Management: Principles and Practice for Local Government (pp. 3-29). Washington, D.C: International City Management Association.
Duschene, P., & Sonnet, J. (2005). WMS Change Request: Support for WSDL & SOAP. In OGC (Ed.), 4.
Elwood, S. (2008). Volunteered geographic information: future research directions motivated by critical, participatory, and feminist GIS. GeoJournal, 72, 173-183.
Erl, T. (2004). Service-Oriented Architecture: A Field Guide to Integrating XML and Web Services: Prentice Hall PTR.
ERSI. (2014). What is GIS interoperability? , from http://resources.arcgis.com/en/help/main/10.2/index.html#//003700000001000000
Erskine, M. A., & Gregg, D. G. (2012). Utilizing Volunteered Geographic Information to Develop a Real-Time Disaster Mapping Tool: A Prototype and Research Framework. Paper presented at the International Conference on Information Resources Management (CONF-IRM).
DIRECTIVE 2007/2/EC (2007).
Fabbri, K., & Weets, G. (2005). ICT for Environmental Risk Management in the EU Research Context Geo-information for Disaster Management (Vol. 51-56).
FEMA. (2011). National Incident Support Manual.
FEMA. (2010). The Federal Emergency Management Agency Publication 1.
FGDC. (2007a). Framework Introduction and Guide: FGDC.
FGDC. (2012). Components of the NSDI. from https://www.fgdc.gov/components
FGDC. (2010). Developing NSDI Framework Data: ANSI Framework Data Content Standards Guidance Document
FGDC. (2007b). Spatial Data Transfer Standard.
FGDC. (2006). OpenGIS® Catalogue Service Implementation Specification 2.0.1 - FGDC CSDGM Application Profile for CSW 2.0 FGDC.
Flanagin, A. J., & Metzger, M. J. (2008). The credibility of volunteered geographic information. GeoJournal, 72, 137-148.
Fonseca, F., Egenhofer, M., Agouris, P., & Câmara, G. (2002). Using Ontologies for Integrated Geographic Information Systems Transactions in GIS, 6(3), 231-257.
Giardino, M., Perotti, L., Lanfranco, M., & Perrone, G. (2012). GIS and geomatics for disaster management and emergency relief: a proactive response to natural hazards. Appl Geomat, 4, 33-46.
Golodoniuc, P., & Cox, S. (2010). Application schema modeling for interoperable geospatial informationusing the ISO 19100 series of standards. . Paper presented at the 4th eResearch Australasia Conference, Gold Coast, Australia.
Goodchild, M. F. (2007). Citizens as sensors: the world of volunteered geography. GeoJournal, 69(4), 211-221.
Goodchild, M. F., & Glennon, J. A. (2010). Crowdsourcing geographic information for disaster response: a research frontier. In T. Francis (Ed.), International Journal of Digital Earth.
Groot, R., & Sharifi, M. A. (1994). Spatial Data Infrastructure, Essential Element in The Successful Exploitation of GIS Technology. EGIS.
GSDI. (2011). Spatial Data Infrastructure Cookbook G. S. D. I. A. (GSDI) (Ed.)
GSDI. (2008). 災害應變與地理資訊系統. 亞洲暨太平洋地區電子新聞月報, 5(6).
Gunther, O., & Voisard, A. (1996). Metadata in Geographic and Environmental Data Management. In A. Sheth & W. Klas (Eds.), Using Metadata to Integrate and Apply Digital Media (pp. 57-87). McGraw Hill.
Guo, D., Wu, K., Zhang, Z., & Xiang, W. (2012). WMS-based Flow Mapping Services. Paper presented at the 2012 IEEE Eighth World Congress on Services, Honolulu, HI.
Howe, J. (2008). Crowdsourcing: Why the Power of the Crowd Is Driving the Future of Business. New York, NY, USA: Crown Publishing Group.
INSPIRE. (2011). Technical Guidance for the implementation of INSPIRE Discovery Services. In INSPIRE (Ed.): IOC Task Force for Network Services.
INSPIRE. (2009). INSPIRE Metadata Implementing Rules: Technical Guidelines based on EN ISO 19115 and EN ISO 19119 European Commission Joint Research Centre.
ISO. (2003). ISO 19115: Geographic information－Metadata. Geneva: ISO.
Jakobsson, A., & Giversen, J. (2009). Guidelines for Implementing the ISO 19100 Geographic Information Quality Standards in National Mapping and Cadastral Agencies.
Janeiro, R. d. (2013). Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) Manual for the Americas. 1.
Kashyap, V., & Sheth, A. (1996). Semantic Heterogeneity in Global Information Systems : The Role of Metadata Context and Ontologies. In M. Papazoglou & G. Schlageter (Eds.), Cooperative Information Systems : Current Trends and Directions.
Kimball, R., Ross, M., Thornthwaite, W., Mundy, J., & Becker, B. (1998). The Data Warehouse Lifecycle Toolkit: Wiley.
Knudsen, R. (2012). The Florida Marine Spill Analysis System (FMSAS) Digital Integration for Oil Spill Response and Planning. Paper presented at the NOAA ESI Workshop.
Koloniari, G., & Pitoura, E. (2005). Peer-to-Peer Management of XML Data: Issues and Research Challenges. SIGMOD Record, 34(2), 6-17.
Landsbergen, D., & Wolken, G. (2001). Realizing the Promise: Government Information Systems and the Fourth Generation of Information Technology. Public Administration Review, 61(2), 206-220.
Lapierre, A., & Cote, P. (2008). Using Open Web Services for urban data management: A tested resulting from an OGC initiative for offering standard CAD/GIS BIM services. In M. Rumor, E. Fendel & S. Zlatanova (Eds.), Urban and Regional Data Managemen (pp. 381-393). London.
Lawrence, S., & Giles, C. L. (1998). Searching the world wide web. Science, 280, 98-100.
Lee, Y.-H., & Huang, C.-N. (2012). The Study of Mechanism of Mobilization for Mega Disaster - Taiwan area. Paper presented at the 8th International Symposium on Social Management Systems - Disaster Prevention and Reconstruction Management (SSMS2012), Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
Lendrum, T. (2000). The strategic partnership handbook - the practitioners guide to partnerships and alliances (Vol. 3). Australia, Sydney: McGraw-Hill.
Ling, H. I., Smyth, A. W., 王价巨, 李彥志, & 郭宥秋. (2005). Policy-Oriented Suggestions for Post-Disaster Recovery Related Mechanisms to the Public Works in Taiwan - The Comparative Study of the Operation Procedure of Rapid Needs Assessment in Taiwan and USA: 台灣環境與災害政策學會.
Logan, J. R. (2006). The Impact of Katrina: Race and Class in Storm-Damaged Neighborhoods
Longley, P. A., Goodchild, M., Maguire, D. J., & Rhind, D. W. (2011). Geographic Information Systems and Science 3e: WILEY.
Luiz A. Manfré, Eliane Hirata, Janaína B. Silva, Eduardo J. Shinohara, Mariana A. Giannotti, Ana Paula C. Larocca, & José A. Quintanilha. (2012). An Analysis of Geospatial Technologies for Risk and Natural Disaster Management ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 1, 166-185.
Margesson, R., & Taft-Morales, M. (2010). Haiti Earthquake: Crisis and Response Congressional Research Service.
Martin, D. (1996). Geographic Information Systems:Socioeconomic Applications (Vol. 1). London, U.K.: Routledge.
Martin, M. F., & Margesson, R. (2008). Cyclone Nargis and Burma's Constitutional Referendum: Congressional Research Service.
Martin Molina, & Salvador Bayarri. (2011). A multinational SDI-based system to facilitate disaster risk management in the Andean Community. Computers & Geosciences, 37, 1501-1510.
Martin Molina, Salvador Bayarri, & Ruben Vargas. (2008). The Andean Information System for Disaster Prevention and Relief: A case study of multi-national open-source SDI. Paper presented at the 2008 Free and Open Software for Geospatial(FOSS4G), Cape Town, South Africa.
Masser, I. (2005). GIS Worlds: Creating Spatial Data Infrastructures: Esri Press; First Edition edition.
McDougall, K. (2006). A Local-State Government Spatial Data Sharing Partnership Model to Facilitate SDI Development. The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
Meissner, A., Luckenbach, T., Risse, T., Kirste, T., & Kirchner, H. (2002). Design Challenges for an Integrated Disaster Management Communication and Information System Paper presented at the IEEE, New York City.
Michael G. Tait. (2005). Implementing geoportals: applications of distributed GIS. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 29, 33-47.
Moellering, H., J.G.L., H., Aalders, P. I., & Crane, M. A. (2005). World Spatial Metadata Standards : Scientific and Technical Descriptions, and Full Descriptions with Crosstable Elsevier.
Morris, S., Tuttle, J., & Essic, J. (2009). A Partnership Framework for Geospatial Data Preservation in North Carolina. Geospatial Data Preservation, 57, 516-540.
NISO-Press. (2004). Understanding Metadata.
NISO. (2013). The Dublin Core Metadata Element Set. In NISO (Ed.).
Norio, O., Ye, T., Kajitani, Y., Shi, P., & Tatano, H. (2011). The 2011 Eastern Japan Great Earthquake Disaster: Overview and Comments. Int. J. Disaster Risk Sci., 2, 34-42.
NRC. (2009). GeoConnections Framework Data Guide. NRC.
O'Reilly, T. (2007). What Is Web 2.0: Design Patterns and Business Models for the Next Generation of Software Communications & Strategies, 1, 17-37.
OFDA/CRED. (2011). EM-DAT The International Disaster Database Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED).
OGC. (2007). OpenGIS® Catalogue Services Specification. In OGC (Ed.).
OGC. (2011a). Observations and Measurements - XML Implementation. In OGC (Ed.).
OGC. (2011b). OGC® SWE Common Data Model Encoding Standard: OGC.
Olfat, H., Kalantari, M., Rajabifard, A., Senot, H., & Williamson, I. P. (2013). A GML-based approach to automate spatial metadata updating. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 27(2), 231-250.
Onchaga, R. (2005). On Quality-Aware Composition of Geographic Information Services for Disaster Management. In P. v. Oosterom, S. Zlatanova & E. M. Fendel (Eds.), Geo-information for Disaster Management.
Onsrud, H., Poore, B., Rugg, R., Taupier, R., & Wiggins, L. (2004). The future of the spatial Information infrastructure. In R. B. McMaster & E. L. Usery (Eds.), In A Research Agenda for Geographic Information Science (pp. 225-255).
Oosterom, P. v., Zlatanova, S., & Fendel, M. (2005). Geo-information for Disaster Management.
ORCHESTRA-Executive-Board. (2005). Towards an open disaster risk management service architecture for INSPIRE and GMES European Commission.
Petrescu, F., Luca, O., Gaman, F., Iacoboaea, C., Aldea, M., & Boiu, I. (2009). INSPIRE Impact in Urban Engineering and Regional Development. Paper presented at the Third INSPIRE Conference, Rotterdam. The Nederlands.
Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act, 120, Pub. L. No. 109-295, 120 Stat. (2006).
Rajabifard, A., Mansourian, A., Williamson, I. P., & Valadan Zoej, M. J. (2004). Developing Spatial Data Infrastructure to Facilitate Disaster Management. Paper presented at the GEOMATICS 83 Conference.
Rawat, S., Roy, P. S., Lemmens, R., & Saran, S. (2004). GML based model of Indian NSDE format for Geo Spatial Data Interoperability. Paper presented at the Global Spatial Data Infrastructure 7th Conferernce, Bangalore, India.
Reichman, O. J., Jones, M. B., & Schildhauer, M. P. (2011). Challenges and Opportunities of Open Data in Ecology. Science, 331(6018), 703-705.
Robinson, M. (2008). A History of Spatial Data Coordination.
Salge, F. M. N. S. (1989). A geographic data model based on HBDS concepts: The IGN Cartographic Data Base Model. Paper presented at the AUTOCARTO9.
Seligman, L., & Rosenthal, A. (1996). A Metadata Resource to Promote Data Integration. Paper presented at the Proc. Metadata Conference.
Sen, A. (2004). Metadata management: past, present and future. Decision Support Systems, 37, 151-173.
Shin, M. S., Danko, M. D., Moellering, P. H., Silkensen, M. S., Wescott, M. B., Brodeur, D. J., . . . Sussman, M. R. (2007). North American Profile of ISO19115:2003 - Geographic information - Metadata In FGDC & N. R. Canada (Eds.): NAP - Metadata Working Group.
Steven, A. R. (2005). The U.S. National Spatial Data Infrastructure: What is new? . Paper presented at the ISPRS Workshop on Service and Application of Spatial Data Infrastructure, Hangzhou, China.
Tim O'Reilly. (2005). What Is Web 2.0 Design Patterns and Business Models for the Next Generation of Software. from http://www.oreilly.com/pub/a/web2/archive/what-is-web-20.html
UN. (2015). United Nations Multilingual Terminology(UNTERM) Database - National Spatial Data Infrastructure. http://unterm.un.org/dgaacs/unterm.nsf/8fa942046ff7601c85256983007ca4d8/edee17fb95dd157185256a0100006b55?OpenDocument
Wariyapola, P. C. (1999). Towards an Ontology and Metadata Structure for a Distributed Information System (Master), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Warpechowski, M., Souto, M. A. M., & Oliveira, J. P. M. d. (2006). Techniques for Metadata Retrieval of Learning Objects. Paper presented at the International Workshop on Applications of Semantic Web Technologies for E-Learning (SW-EL), Dublin: National College of Ireland.
WMO. (2004). Iso 19100 Series of Geographic Information Standards. 5(2).
Zhang, J., & Gruenwald, L. (2002). A GMGBased Open Architecture for Building a Geographical Information Search Engine Over the Internet Paper presented at the IEEE.
Zlatanova, S., & Fabbri, A. G. (2009). Geo-ICT for Risk and Disaster Management. In P. H. J. Scholten, D. R. v. d. Velde & N. v. Manen (Eds.), Geospatial Technology and the Role of Location in Science.
Zook, M., Graham, M., Shelton, T., & Gorman, S. (2010). Volunteered Geographic Information and Crowdsourcing Disaster Relief: A Case Study of the Haitian Earthquake. World Medical & Health Policy, 2(2), 7-33.