Miyake等人於2000年提出的執行功能老化，該理論包含轉換、更新、抑制三項功能。本論文著重於轉換功能與老化之間的關係，其受到老化的影響並沒有一致的看法。作業轉換派典是研究人類執行功能中，轉換功能這個子項目的常見實驗派典。它要求受試者在兩個簡單作業之間進行切換。根據過去經驗資料，人類在兩種簡單作業中交替進行時，表現會比單純作其中一種表現來的差。作業轉換就是要透過反應時間來量化這種差異。測量這種差異的主要指標是轉換虧損。搜尋過去相關文獻後發現，轉換虧損與年齡關係的研究結果相當不一致，有些文獻認為會隨年齡上升，有些則沒有得到顯著的結果。為了釐清轉換虧損表現不一致的原因，本論文透過布林利圖（Brinley plot）、狀態追蹤（state-trace）分析以及後設分析方法等整合性分析來做為過去文獻的總結。接著，進行了縱貫型研究直接觀察老化與轉換虧損的關係。
本論文有兩個研究，首先是整合性研究， 使用了布林利圖、狀態追蹤分析以及後設分析。布林利圖是將老人與年輕人的資料分別置於X及Y軸上，若兩組沒有差異那麼就會落在Y=X的對角線上。接著，蒐集多篇文獻的資料並且透過迴歸分析比較不同模型的適配性，決定是否能夠根據不同情境分成兩條線。如果區分成兩組的模型為最佳模型，這就表示有老化效果的存在。狀態追蹤則是將原先放在軸上的年齡分組改成實驗操弄情境，接著一樣進行迴歸分析並比較模型，若能分出老人與年輕人兩條線，就能證明兩組之間具有差異。結果顯示，布林利圖並沒有辦法區分出轉換與重複兩種情境，表示轉換虧損非常低甚至不存在差異；狀態追蹤分析有區分出老人與年輕人兩條平行線，表示老人穩定的慢於年輕人，且沒有交互作用。這意味著老化並不影響轉換虧損，只是單純地造成反應速度變慢。
第一項研究的第三個分析使用後設分析，此方法用來估計這些文獻的效果量大小，以推測過去沒有觀察到一致老化現象的可能性是否為效果量太小所致。結果雖然有顯著大於零的整合效果量，但是異質性分析的結果指出這些文獻之間變異太大，顯示這些文獻不適宜直接拿來比較。
第二項研究本論文進行了兩個時間點的實證研究，包含了橫斷與縱貫資料的分析。第一波分析了207名年齡介於20至80歲的參與者，第二波則包含94名年齡範圍相同的參與者。實驗採用提示性的作業轉換設計，比較同一波老人與年輕人轉換虧損的差異。縱貫分析則是比較能夠參與第二波的參與者兩年之間前後轉換虧損的變化，以期直接觀察老化在轉換虧損上的效果。本論文採用混合效應模型來估計效果，好處是能夠考慮到參與者的個體差異。我們在兩波的橫斷性分析中皆發現老人的轉換虧損較低，而縱貫型研究則發現兩波測驗之間，轉換虧損並沒有太大的改變。在本論文的橫斷分析中發現了老人虧損小於年輕人的結果，很有可能是因為抽樣所導致的結果，因為我們的老年參與者都是在志工活動中相當活躍者，他們本身可就有較佳的認知功能。在縱貫研究中，轉換虧損改善的效果則與第一部分的整合研究有不一致的結果。會有這種情況，很可能是由於過去的文獻多半是採用橫斷式設計，此種設計會有參與者過度篩選、世代效應、無法分析個體差異等問題。至於縱貫性追蹤的結果不能排除本論文潛在的抽樣，以及練習效果，這些都是本論文所面臨的限制。
最後，有關未來研究的方向，本論文建議如下: 對於不同類型的實驗設計應該分開來進行整合分析，因為它們涉及到的認知功能可能不同，並不能完全當作純粹的轉換功能指標，也不能直接拿來進行比較。以及未來回顧研究可以考慮直接使用文獻的原始資料，透過混合效果模型來考慮不同文獻之間的誤差，進而獲得更準確的結果。而針對單一研究的實驗設計的建議是，可能需要設計更準確的實驗派典來測量轉換能力，而盡量減少其他功能的干擾。

Shifting ability is an important skill for managing daily life. Previous literature has yielded inconsistent findings regarding the impact of aging on shifting ability, with even fewer longitudinal studies available. This thesis aims to synthesize existing cross-sectional data and conduct a longitudinal investigation to clarify the relationship between aging and shifting ability. To achieve this, researchers employed a task-switching paradigm to assess shifting ability and analyzed cross-sectional task-switching data. The results continue to exhibit inconsistencies, likely attributed to variations in study design. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies indicate an improvement in the performance of older adults, which may be due to potential practice effects or sampling issues rather than a genuine aging-related effect. For future research, this thesis recommends the necessity of conducting long-term longitudinal studies with more precise study designs to minimize interference from other cognitive abilities.

Artuso, C., Cavallini, E., Bottiroli, S., & Palladino, P. （2017）. Updating working memory: memory load matters with aging. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 29, 371-377.
Adólfsdóttir, S., Wollschlaeger, D., Wehling, E., & Lundervold, A. J. （2017）. Inhibition and switching in healthy aging: a longitudinal study. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 23（1）, 90-97.
Allport, A., Styles, E. A., & Hsieh, S. （1994）. 17 Shifting intentional set: Exploring the dynamic control of tasks.
Andrés, P., Guerrini, C., Phillips, L. H., & Perfect, T. J. （2008）. Differential effects of aging on executive and automatic inhibition. Developmental neuropsychology, 33（2）, 101-123.
Brinley, J. F. （1965）. “Cognitive sets, speed and accuracy of performance in the elderly,” in Behavior, Aging and the Nervous System, eds A. T. Welford, J. E. Birren （Springfield: Thomas） 114–149.
Borenstein, M. （2022）. Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Software. Systematic Reviews in Health Research, 535–548. doi:10.1002/9781119099369.ch27
Braver, T. S., & Barch, D. M. （2002）. A theory of cognitive control, aging cognition, and neuromodulation. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 26（7）, 809-817.
Buchler, N. G., Hoyer, W. J., & Cerella, J. （2008）. Rules and more rules: The effects of multiple tasks, extensive training, and aging on task-switching performance. Memory & Cognition, 36（4）, 735-748.
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P., & Rothstein, H. R. （2021）. Introduction to meta-analysis. John Wiley & Sons.
Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. （2010）. A developmental perspective on executive function. Child development, 81（6）, 1641-1660.
Babcock, R. L., & Salthouse, T. A. （1990）. Effects of increased processing demands on age differences in working memory. Psychology and aging, 5（3）, 421.
Clarys, D., Bugaiska, A., Tapia, G., & Alexia Baudouin, A. （2009）. ageing, remembering, and executive function. Memory, 17（2）, 158-168.
Cabeza, R. （2002）. Hemispheric asymmetry reduction in older adults: the HAROLD model. Psychology and aging, 17（1）, 85.
Cashdollar, N., Fukuda, K., Bocklage, A., Aurtenetxe, S., Vogel, E. K., & Gazzaley, A. （2013）. Prolonged disengagement from attentional capture in normal aging. Psychology and aging, 28（1）, 77.
Cepeda, N. J., Kramer, A. F., & Gonzalez de Sather, J. （2001）. Changes in executive control across the life span: examination of task-switching performance. Developmental psychology, 37（5）, 715.
Chen, E. H., & Hsieh, S. （2023）. The effect of age on task switching: updated and extended meta-analyses. Psychological Research, 1-20.
Chen, T., & Li, D. （2007）. The roles of working memory updating and processing speed in mediating age-related differences in fluid intelligence. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 14（6）, 631-646.
Davis, S. W., Dennis, N. A., Daselaar, S. M., Fleck, M. S., & Cabeza, R. （2008）. Que PASA? The posterior–anterior shift in aging. Cerebral cortex, 18（5）, 1201-1209.
Dobbs, A. R., & Rule, B. G. （1989）. Adult age differences in working memory. Psychology and aging, 4（4）, 500.
de Frias, C. M., Dixon, R. A., & Strauss, E. （2009）. Characterizing executive functioning in older special populations: from cognitively elite to cognitively impaired. Neuropsychology, 23（6）, 778.
Douglas Bates, Martin Maechler, Ben Bolker, Steve Walker （2015）. Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67（1）, 1-48. doi:10.18637/jss.v067.i01.
Dove, A., Pollmann, S., Schubert, T., Wiggins, C. J., & Von Cramon, D. Y. （2000）. Prefrontal cortex activation in task switching: an event-related fMRI study. Cognitive brain research, 9（1）, 103-109.
Eich, T. S., Parker, D., Liu, D., Oh, H., Razlighi, Q., Gazes, Y., ... & Stern, Y. （2016）. Functional brain and age-related changes associated with congruency in task switching. Neuropsychologia, 91, 211-221.
Eppinger, B., Kray, J., Mecklinger, A., & John, O. （2007）. age differences in task switching and response monitoring: Evidence from ERPs. Biological Psychology, 75（1）, 52–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.12.001
Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Altamirano, L. J., Corley, R. P., Young, S. E., Rhea, S. A., & Hewitt, J. K. （2016）. Stability and change in executive function abilities from late adolescence to early adulthood: A longitudinal twin study. Developmental psychology, 52（2）, 326.
Friedman, D., Nessler, D., Johnson Jr, R., Ritter, W., & Bersick, M. （2007）. age-related changes in executive function: an event-related potential （ERP） investigation of task-switching. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 15（1）, 95-128.
Fjell, A. M., Westlye, L. T., Amlien, I., Espeseth, T., Reinvang, I., Raz, N., ... & Walhovd, K. B. （2009）. High consistency of regional cortical thinning in aging across multiple samples. Cerebral cortex, 19（9）, 2001-2012.
Gajewski, P. D., Ferdinand, N. K., Kray, J., & Falkenstein, M. （2018）. Understanding sources of adult age differences in task switching: Evidence from behavioral and ERP studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 92, 255-275.
Gajewski, P. D., Wild-Wall, N., Schapkin, S. A., Erdmann, U., Freude, G., & Falkenstein, M. （2010）. Effects of aging and job demands on cognitive flexibility assessed by task switching. Biological psychology, 85（2）, 187-199.
Goffaux, P., Phillips, N. A., Sinai, M., & Pushkar, D. （2008）. Neurophysiological measures of task-set switching: Effects of working memory and aging. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 63（2）, P57-P66.
Guiney, H., & Machado, L. （2018）. Volunteering in the Community: Potential Benefits for Cognitive Aging. Journals of Gerontology - Series B Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 73（3）, 399–408. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbx134
Guzzo, R. A., Jackson, S. E., & Katzell, R. A. （1987）. Meta-analysis analysis. Research in organizational behavior, 9（1）, 407-442.
Hakun, J. G., Zhu, Z., Brown, C. A., Johnson, N. F., & Gold, B. T. （2015）. Longitudinal alterations to brain function, structure, and cognitive performance in healthy older adults: A fMRI-DTI study. Neuropsychologia, 71, 225-235.
Hawkins, H. L., Kramer, A. F., & Capaldi, D. （1992）. Aging, exercise, and attention. Psychology and Aging, 7（4）, 643. https://doi.org/10. 1037/ 0882- 7974.7. 4. 643
Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. （1988）. Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and a new view. Psychology of learning and motivation, 22, 193-225.
Hsieh, S., & Chen, E. H. （2023）. Specific but not general declines in attention and executive function with aging: Converging cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence across the adult lifespan. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1108725.
Hsieh, S., & Wu, M. （2010）. age differences in switching the relevant stimulus dimensions in a speeded same–different judgment paradigm. Acta psychologica, 135（2）, 140-149.
Hsieh, S., & Yang, M. H. （2021）. Two-year follow-up study of the relationship between brain structure and cognitive control function across the adult lifespan. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 13, 655050.
Hsieh, S., & Yang, M. H. （2022）. Potential diffusion tensor imaging biomarkers for elucidating intra-individual age-related changes in cognitive control and processing speed. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 14, 850655.
Jersild, A. T. （1927）. Mental set and shift （No. 89）. Columbia university.
Karbach, J., & Kray, J. （2009）. How useful is executive control training? age differences in near and far transfer of task‐switching training. Developmental science, 12（6）, 978-990.
Kawai, N., Kubo-Kawai, N., Kubo, K., Terazawa, T., & Masataka, N. （2012）. Distinct aging effects for two types of inhibition in older adults: a near-infrared spectroscopy study on the Simon task and the flanker task. Neuroreport, 23（14）, 819-824.
Keyes, K. M., Utz, R. L., Robinson, W., & Li, G. （2010）. What is a cohort effect? Comparison of three statistical methods for modeling cohort effects in obesity prevalence in the United States, 1971–2006. Social science & medicine, 70（7）, 1100-1108.
Kiesel, A., Steinhauser, M., Wendt, M., Falkenstein, M., Jost, K., Philipp, A. M., & Koch, I. （2010）. Control and interference in task switching—A review. Psychological bulletin, 136（5）, 849.
Kopp, B., Lange, F., Howe, J., & Wessel, K. （2014）. age-related changes in neural recruitment for cognitive control. Brain and cognition, 85, 209-219.
Kramer, A. F., Hahn, S., & Gopher, D. （1999）. Task coordination and aging: Explorations of executive control processes in the task switching paradigm. Acta psychologica, 101（2-3）, 339-378.
Kray, J. （2006）. Task-set switching under cue-based versus memory-based switching conditions in younger and older adults. BrainResearch, 1105（1）, 83–92. https://doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. brain res.2005. 11. 016
Kray, J., Eber, J., & Karbach, J. （2008）. Verbal self-instructions in task switching: A compensatory tool for action-control deficits in childhood and old age? Developmental Science, 11（2）, 223–236. https://doi.org/ 10. 1111/j. 1467- 7687. 2008. 00673.x
Kray, J., Eber, J., & Lindenberger, U. （2004）. age differences in executive functioning across the lifespan: The role of verbalization in task preparation. Acta Psychologica, 115（2–3）, 143–165. https://doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. actpsy. 2003. 12. 001
Kray, J., Eppinger, B. E. N., & Mecklinger, A. （2005）. age differences in attentional control: An event‐related potential approach. Psychophysiology, 42（4）, 407-416.
Kray, J., & Fehér, B. （2017）. age differences in the transfer and maintenance of practice-induced improvements in task switching: The impact of working-memory and inhibition demands. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 410.
Kray, J., Li, K. Z., & Lindenberger, U. （2002）. age-related changes in task-switching components: The role of task uncertainty. Brain and Cognition, 49（3）, 363–381. https://doi.org/ 10. 1006/ brcg.2001. 1505
Kray, J., & Lindenberger, U. （2000）. Adult age differences in task switching. Psychology and aging, 15（1）, 126.
Lawo, V., Philipp, A. M., Schuch, S., & Koch, I. （2012）. The role of task preparation and task inhibition in age-related task-switching deficits. Psychology and Aging. https:// doi.org/ 10. 1037/ a0027455
Lien, M. C., Ruthruff, E., & Kuhns, D. （2008）. age-related differences in switching between cognitive tasks: Does internal control ability decline with age? Psychology and Aging, 23（2）, 330. https://doi. org/ 10. 1037/ 0882- 7974. 23.2. 330
Logan, G. D., & Bundesen, C. （2003）. Clever homunculus: Is there an endogenous act of control in the explicit task-cuing procedure?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 29（3）, 575.
Mayr, U. （2001）. age differences in the selection of mental sets: the role of inhibition, stimulus ambiguity, and response-set overlap. Psychology and aging, 16（1）, 96.
Meiran, N. （1996）. Reconfiguration of processing mode prior to task performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, memory, and cognition, 22（6）, 1423.
Meiran, N., Gotler, A., & Perlman, A. （2001）. Old age is associated with a pattern of relatively intact and relatively impaired task-set switching abilities. The Journals of Gerontology Series b: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 56（2）, P88–P102. https://doi.org/ 10. 1093/geronb/ 56.2. p88
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. （2000）. The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive psychology, 41（1）, 49-100.
Monsell, S. （2003）. Task switching. Trends in cognitive sciences, 7（3）, 134-140.
Munnell, A. H. （2015）. The average retirement age–an update. Notes, 1920, 1960-1980.
Nielson, K. A., Langenecker, S. A., & Garavan, H. （2002）. Differences in the functional neuroanatomy of inhibitory control across the adult life span. Psychology and Aging, 17, 56–71.
Park, D. C., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. （2009）. The adaptive brain: aging and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annual review of psychology, 60, 173-196.
Podell, J. E., Sambataro, F., Murty, V. P., Emery, M. R., Tong, Y., Das, S., ... & Mattay, V. S. （2012）. Neurophysiological correlates of age-related changes in working memory updating. Neuroimage, 62（3）, 2151-2160.
Reimers, S., & Maylor, E. A. （2005）. Task switching across the life span: effects of age on general and specific switch costs. Developmental psychology, 41（4）, 661.
R Core Team （2021）. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. URL https://www.R-project.org/.
Raz, N., Briggs, S. D., Marks, W., & Acker, J. D. （1999）. age-related deficits in generation and manipulation of mental images: II. The role of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Psychology and aging, 14（3）, 436.
Rosenthal, R., Cooper, H., & Hedges, L. （1994）. Parametric measures of effect size. The handbook of research synthesis, 621（2）, 231-244.
Ruscheweyh, R., Deppe, M., Lohmann, H., Wersching, H., Korsukewitz, C., Duning, T., ... & Knecht, S. （2013）. Executive performance is related to regional gray matter volume in healthy older individuals. Human brain mapping, 34（12）, 3333-3346.
Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., & Lustig, C. （2017）. Working memory and executive functions in the aging brain.
Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., & Sylvester, C. Y. C. （2005）. The cognitive neuroscience of working memory and aging. Cognitive neuroscience of aging: Linking cognitive and cerebral aging, 186-217.
Salat, D. H., Buckner, R. L., Snyder, A. Z., Greve, D. N., Desikan, R. S., Busa, E., ... & Fischl, B. （2004）. Thinning of the cerebral cortex in aging. Cerebral cortex, 14（7）, 721-730.
Salthouse, T. A. （1996）. The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychological review, 103（3）, 403.
Salthouse, T. A. （2000）. Aging and measures of processing speed. Biological psychology, 54（1-3）, 35-54.
Salthouse, T. A. （2004）. What and when of cognitive aging. Current directions in psychological science, 13（4）, 140-144.
Salthouse, T. A. （2014）. Why are there different age relations in cross-sectional and longitudinal comparisons of cognitive functioning?. Current directions in psychological science, 23（4）, 252-256.
Salthouse, T. A., Fristoe, N., McGuthry, K. E., & Hambrick, D. Z. （1998）. Relation of task switching to speed, age, and fluid intelligence. Psychology and aging, 13（3）, 445.
Schneider, C. A., Rasband, W. S., & Eliceiri, K. W. （2012）. NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 years of image analysis. Nature Methods, 9（7）, 671–675. doi:10.1038/nmeth.2089
Van der Linden, M., Brédart, S., & Beerten, A. （1994）. age‐related differences in updating working memory. British journal of psychology, 85（1）, 145-152.
Verhaeghen, P., & Cerella, J. （2002）. Aging, executive control, and attention: A review of meta-analyses. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 26（7）, 849-857.
Vallesi, A., McIntosh, A. R., & Stuss, D. T. （2011）. Overrecruitment in the aging brain as a function of task demands: evidence for a compensatory view. Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 23（4）, 801-815.
Van Asselen, M., & Ridderinkhof, K. R. （2000）. Shift costs of predictable and unexpected set shifting in young and older adults. Psychologica Belgica, 40（4）, 259–273. https:// doi. org/ 10. 5334/pb. 966
Van Hooren, S. A. H., Valentijn, A. M., Bosma, H., Ponds, R. W. H. M., Van Boxtel, M. P. J., & Jolles, J. （2007）. Cognitive functioning in healthy older adults aged 64–81: A cohort study into the effects of age, sex, and education. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 14（1）, 40-54.
Wasylyshyn, C., Verhaeghen, P., & Sliwinski, M. J. （2011）. Aging and task switching: a meta-analysis. Psychology and aging, 26（1）, 15.
West, R. L. （1996）. An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging. Psychological bulletin, 120（2）, 272.
Whitson, L. R., Karayanidis, F., Fulham, R., Provost, A., Michie, P. T., Heathcote, A., & Hsieh, S. （2014）. Reactive control processes contributing to residual switch cost and mixing cost across the adult lifespan. Frontiers in Psychology, 5（APR）, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00383
Whitson, L. R., Karayanidis, F., & Michie, P. T. （2012）. Task practice differentially modulates task-switching performance across the adult lifespan. Acta psychologica, 139（1）, 124-136.
Wecker, N. S., Kramer, J. H., Wisniewski, A., Delis, D. C., & Kaplan, E. （2000）. age effects on executive ability. Neuropsychology, 14（3）, 409.
Yang, C. T., Hsieh, S., Hsieh, C. J., Fifić, M., Yu, Y. T., & Wang, C. H. （2019）. An examination of age-related differences in attentional control by systems factorial technology. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 92, 102280.
Yao, Z. F., & Hsieh, S. （2022）. age differences of the hierarchical cognitive control and the frontal rostro–caudal functional brain activation. Cerebral Cortex, 32（13）, 2797-2815.
Zunini, R. A. L., Morrison, C., Kousaie, S., & Taler, V. （2019）. Task switching and bilingualism in young and older adults: A behavioral and electrophysiological investigation. Neuropsychologia, 133, 107186.