隨著美食拍照分享（Foodstagramming）逐漸成為當代用餐文化中的常態，餐廳經營者也日益面臨一項兩難的管理困境：一方面需要允許顧客拍照以符合其用餐與社群分享的消費儀式，另一方面則可能希望透過限制拍照來維護用餐環境的沉浸感與顧客隱私。這種用餐文化與限制性政策之間的張力，為餐飲服務管理帶來新的挑戰。
在美食拍照分享盛行的趨勢下，過去研究已廣泛探討對消費者行為的影響。然而，相較之下，關於限制拍照政策如何影響顧客的心理體驗與滿意度，仍缺乏系統性的探討。為填補此一研究缺口，本研究旨在探討限制性拍照政策所帶來的心理影響，具體來說，則是提出自我去人化（self-dehumanization）作為關鍵中介機制，認為禁止拍照的政策可能會威脅用餐者的自主感與人性知覺，進而降低顧客滿意度。此外，為考量消費者不同的心理需求，以自我決定理論（SDT）為基礎，將用餐類型（獨自用餐與他人用餐）納入為潛在調節變數，藉此檢驗拍照政策的影響是否會因用餐情境不同而有所差異。
本研究採用 2 × 2 組間實驗設計，共蒐集 286 名有效美國受試者樣本。根據結果顯示，相較於允許拍照的政策，禁止拍照會顯著降低顧客滿意度。此外，自我去人化在拍照政策與顧客滿意度之間具有部分中介效果，顯示限制性政策會削弱顧客對自身自主性與人性特質的感知。然而，與原先預期不同的是，用餐類型並未對拍照政策的直接或間接效果產生調節作用，顯示拍照限制對顧客心理的影響在不同用餐情境下可能具有相似性。最後，在理論貢獻與管理意涵上，本研究將自我去人化理論延伸至日常服務互動情境，並指出餐廳限制拍照政策可能帶來的潛在心理成本。

As foodstagramming has become a normalized part of contemporary dining culture, restaurants increasingly face a dilemma: allowing photography to accommodate consumer rituals or prohibiting it to preserve immersion or privacy. This emerging conflict between diners' rituals and restrictive policies presents a challenge for hospitality management.
Driven by the popularity of foodstagramming, prior research has extensively examined its behavioral outcomes. However, limited attention has been paid to how restrictive photo-taking policies influence customers’ psychological experiences and satisfaction. To address this gap, the present study investigates the psychological consequences of restrictive photo-taking policies. Specifically, we propose self-dehumanization as a key mediator, arguing that prohibition policies threaten diners' sense of agency and humanness, thereby diminishing customer satisfaction. Furthermore, drawing on Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to account for varying psychological needs, we incorporate diner type (solo vs. commensal) as a potential moderator to examine whether the impact of photo-taking policies may vary by dining companionship.
Using a 2 × 2 between-subjects experiment with 286 U.S. participants, the results show that prohibition policies significantly reduce customer satisfaction compared to allowance policies. Self-dehumanization partially mediates this relationship, indicating that restrictive policies undermine perceived agency and humanness. Contrary to expectations, diner type does not moderate the direct or indirect effects, suggesting that the psychological impact of photo-taking restrictions may be similar across dining contexts. This study extends self-dehumanization theory to routine service encounters and highlights the potential psychological costs of restrictive photo-taking policies in restaurant settings.

Adolfsson, P., Mattsson Sydner, Y., & Fjellström, C. (2010). Social aspects of eating events among people with intellectual disability in community living. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 35(4), 259–267. https://doi.org/10.3109/13668250.2010.513329
Babin, B.J., Lee, Y.K., Kim, E.J. and Griffin, M. (2005), Modeling consumer satisfaction and word-of-mouth: restaurant patronage in Korea, Journal of Services Marketing, 19(3), 133–139. https://doi.org/10.1108/08876040510596803
Barasch, A., Zauberman, G., & Diehl, K. (2018). How the intention to share can undermine enjoyment: Photo-taking goals and evaluation of experiences. Journal of Consumer Research, 44(6), 1220–1237. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucx112
Bastian, B., & Haslam, N. (2010). Excluded from humanity: The dehumanizing effects of social ostracism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(1), 107–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.06.022
Bastian, B., & Haslam, N. (2011). Experiencing dehumanization: Cognitive and emotional effects of everyday dehumanization. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 33(4), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2011.614132
Bastian, B., Jetten, J., Chen, H., Radke, H. R., Harding, J. F., & Fasoli, F. (2013). Losing our humanity: The self-dehumanizing consequences of social ostracism. Personality & social psychology bulletin, 39(2), 156–169. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212471205
Bolton, R. N., & Drew, J. H. (1991). A multistage model of customers' assessments of service quality and value. Journal of Consumer Research, 17(4), 375–384. https://doi.org/10.1086/208564
Botti, S., Iyengar, S. S., & McGill, A. L. (2023). Choice freedom. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 33(1), 143–166. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1325
Brown, L., Buhalis, D., & Beer, S. (2020). Dining alone: Improving the experience of solo restaurant goers. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 32(3), 1347–1365. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-06-2019-0584
Brown, L., Edwards, J., & Hartwell, H. (2010). A taste of the unfamiliar. Understanding the meanings attached to food by international postgraduate students in England. Appetite, 54(1), 202–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2009.11.001
Brown, L., Edwards, J., & Hartwell, H. (2013). Eating and emotion: Focusing on the lunchtime meal. British Food Journal, 115(2), 196–208. https://doi.org/10.1108/00070701311302186
Cankül, D., Ari, Ö. P., & Okumus, B. (2021). The current practices of food and beverage photography and styling in food business. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, 12(2), 287–306. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHTT-02-2020-0052
Chae, W., Ju, Y. J., Shin, J., Jang, S. I., & Park, E. C. (2018). Association between eating behaviour and diet quality: Eating alone vs. eating with others. Nutrition journal, 17(1), 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-018-0424-0
Chang, R. C. Y. (2022). Developing a taxonomy of motivations for foodstagramming through photo elicitation. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 107, Article 103347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2022.103347
Clee, M. A., & Wicklund, R. A. (1980). Consumer behavior and psychological reactance. Journal of Consumer Research, 6(4), 389–405. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2488740
Counihan, C., & Van Esterik, P. (Eds.). (1997). Food and culture: A reader. Routledge.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1995). Human autonomy: The basis for true self-esteem. In M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp. 31–49). Plenum Press.
Diehl, K., Zauberman, G., & Barasch, A. (2016). How taking photos increases enjoyment of experiences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111(2), 119–140. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000055
Fischler, C. (2011). Commensality, society and culture. Social Science Information, 50(3-4), 528–548. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018411413963
Goodwin, C., & Lockshin, L. (1992). The solo consumer: Unique opportunity for the service marketer. Journal of Services Marketing, 6(3), 27–36. https://doi.org/10.1108/08876049210035908
Han, H., & Ryu, K. (2007). Moderating role of personal characteristics in forming restaurant customers’ behavioral intentions: An upscale restaurant setting. Journal of Hospitality & Leisure Marketing, 15(4), 25–54. https://doi.org/10.1300/J150v15n04_03
Haslam, N. (2006). Dehumanization: An integrative review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(3), 252–264. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1003_4
Huang, H., Feng, S. S., & Wong, I. A. (2025). A systematic review of solo dining research. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 130, 104226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2025.104226
Huang, H., & Liu, S. Q. (2022). Are consumers more attracted to restaurants featuring humanoid or non-humanoid service robots? International Journal of Hospitality Management, 107, 103310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2022.103310
Jönsson, H., Michaud, M., & Neuman, N. (2021). What is commensality? A critical discussion of an expanding research field. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(12), 6235. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126235
KAYAK & OpenTable. (2024, August 20). Flying solo: KAYAK and OpenTable serve up the ultimate guide for travel and dining as a party of one [Press release]. PR Newswire. https://www.prweb.com/releases/solo-diners-represent-the-largest-share-of-u-s-restaurant-visits-among-party-sizes-864492473.html
Koay, K. Y., Ong, D. L. T., Idris, I., Kamarulzaman, N. S. B., & Cheah, C. W. (2024). The rise of solo dining: prediction and consumer profiling. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 28(6), 1334–1353. https://doi.org/10.1080/15378020.2024.2307682
Kouchaki, M., Dobson, K. S. H., Waytz, A., & Kteily, N. S. (2018). The link between self-dehumanization and immoral behavior. Psychological Science, 29(8), 1234–1246. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618760784
Lahad, K., & May, V. (2017). Just one? Solo dining, gender and temporal belonging in public spaces. Sociological Research Online, 22(2), 176–186. https://doi.org/10.5153/sro.4270
Lai, I. K. W. (2015). The roles of value, satisfaction, and commitment in the effect of service quality on customer loyalty in Hong Kong–style tea restaurants. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 56(1), 118–138. https://doi.org/10.1177/1938965514556149
Larson, N. I., Neumark-Sztainer, D., Hannan, P. J., & Story, M. (2007). Family meals during adolescence are associated with higher diet quality and healthful meal patterns during young adulthood. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 107(9), 1502–1510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2007.06.012
Lee, J. C., Cui, Y. (G.), Kim, J., Seo, Y., & Chon, H. (2020). Photo taking paradox: Contrasting effects of photo taking on travel satisfaction and revisit intention. Journal of Travel Research, 60(4), 833–845. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287520912334
Lee, Y., Oh, Y. J., Cho, W., & Jo, P. K. (2015). Differences in solo eating perceptions and dietary behaviors of university students by gender. Journal of the Korean Dietetic Association, 21(1), 57–71. https://doi.org/10.14373/JKDA.2015.21.1.57
Lemke, M., & Schifferstein, H. N. J. (2021). The use of ICT devices as part of the solo eating experience. Appetite, 165, 105297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2021.105297
Lin, B., Fu, X., & Lu, L. (2022). Foodstagramming as a self-presentational behavior: Perspectives of tourists and residents. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 34(12), 4686–4707. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-01-2022-0042
Magdy, A., & Hassan, H. (2025). Foodstagramming unleashed: Examining the role of social media involvement in enhancing the creative food tourism experience. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/14673584241311295
Mannan, M., Chowdhury, N., Sarker, P., & Amir, R. (2019). Modeling customer satisfaction and revisit intention in Bangladeshi dining restaurants. Journal of Modelling in Management, 14(4), 922–947. https://doi.org/10.1108/JM2-12-2017-0135
Marovelli, B. (2019). Cooking and eating together in London: Food sharing initiatives as collective spaces of encounter. Geoforum, 99, 190–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2018.09.006
Martin, D.S., O'Neill, M., Hubbard, S.S., & Palmer, A. (2008). The role of emotion in explaining consumer satisfaction and future behavioural intention. Journal of Services Marketing, 22, 224–236. https://doi.org/10.1108/08876040810871183
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346
Masson, E., Bubendorff, S., & Fraïssé, C. (2018). Toward new forms of meal sharing? Collective habits and personal diets. Appetite, 123, 108-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2017.12.006
Murphy, K. (2010, April 6). First the camera, then the fork. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/07/dining/07camera.html
Nardini, G., Lutz, R. J., & LeBoeuf, R. A. (2019). How and when taking pictures undermines the enjoyment of experiences. Psychology & Marketing, 36(5), 520–529. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21194
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill. Oliver, R. L. (1980). A cognitive model of the antecedents and consequences of satisfaction decisions. Journal of Marketing Research, 17(4), 460–469. https://doi.org/10.2307/3150499
Oliver, R. L. (1993). Cognitive, affective, and attribute bases of the satisfaction response. Journal of Consumer Research, 20(3), 418–430. https://doi.org/10.1086/209358
Oliver, R.L. (1997), Satisfaction: A Behavioral Perspective on the Consumer, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
Oren, O., Arcodia, C., Robinson, R. N., & Novais, M. A. (2024). Commensality research in commercial hospitality: A systematic review. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 117, 103663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2023.103663
Palm, L. (2023, June). No pictures, please! What do influencers actually think of photo bans in Michelin-starred restaurants? KTCHN Rebel. https://www.ktchnrebel.com/photo-ban-star-restaurants/
Parsons, J. M. (2018). ‘Commensality’ as a theatre for witnessing change for criminalised individuals working at a resettlement scheme. European Journal of Probation, 10(3), 182-198. https://doi.org/10.1177/2066220318819239
Pierini, D. (2015, May 16). Image is everything as restaurants plate their food for Instagram fame. Cult of Mac. https://www.cultofmac.com/news/restaurants-embrace-instagram-food-photography
Pijls, R., Groen, B.H., Galetzka, M., & Pruyn, A.T., 2017. Measuring the experience of hospitality: Scale development and validation. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 67, 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2017.07.008
Pliner, P., & Bell, R. (2009). A table for one: The pain and pleasure of eating alone. In H. L. Meiselman (Ed.), Meals in science and practice: Interdisciplinary research and business applications (pp. 169–189). Woodhead Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1533/9781845695712.4.169
Rakuten Travel Guide. (2023, November 08). Everything you need to know about Sukiyabashi Jiro in Tokyo. https://travel.rakuten.com/contents/usa/en-us/guide/everything-about-sukiyabashi-jiro-tokyo/
Ratner, R. K., & Hamilton, R. W. (2015). Inhibited from bowling alone. Journal of Consumer Research, 42(2), 266–283. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucv012
Ruttan, R. L., & Lucas, B. J. (2018). Cogs in the machine: The prioritization of money and self-dehumanization. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 149, 47–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2018.08.007
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
Sobal, J. (2000). Sociability and meals: Facilitation, commensality, and interaction. In H. L. Meiselman (Ed.), Dimensions of the meal: The science, culture, business, and art of eating (pp. 119–133). Aspen Publishers.
Sobal, J., Bove, C. F., & Rauschenbach, B. S. (2002). Commensal careers at entry into marriage: Establishing commensal units and managing commensal circles. The Sociological Review, 50(3), 378–397. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-954X.00388
Sobal, J., & Nelson, M. K. (2003). Commensal eating patterns: A community study. Appetite, 41(2), 181–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0195-6663(03)00078-3
Song, J., Huang, J., & Jiang, Y. (2022). Mitigating the negative effects of service failure through customer identification. Psychology & Marketing, 39(4), 715–725. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21615
Stapinski, H. (2013, January 22). Restaurants turn camera shy. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/23/dining/restaurants-turn-camera-shy.html
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using Multivariate Statistics (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. The NPD Group. (2020, March 4). Solo diners represent the largest share of U.S. restaurant visits among party sizes [Press release]. PRWeb. https://www.prweb.com/releases/solo-diners-represent-the-largest-share-of-u-s-restaurant-visits-among-party-sizes-864492473.html
Westbrook, R. A. (1987). Product/consumption-based affective responses and postpurchase processes. Journal of Marketing Research, 24(3), 258–270. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151636
Wong, I. A., Liu, D., Li, N., Wu, S., Lu, L., & Law, R. (2019). Foodstagramming in the travel encounter. Tourism Management, 71, 99–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.08.020
Xiong, X., Lian, Q. L., & Wong, I. A. (2023). How can foodstagramming improve dining outcomes? A normative focus perspective. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 113, 103490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2023.103490
Yang, W., Jin, S., He, S., Fan, Q., & Zhu, Y. (2015). The impact of power on humanity: self-dehumanization in powerlessness. PloS one, 10(5), e0125721. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0125721
Yang, B., Zhou, P. P., Hwang, Y., Zhao, Y., & Mattila, A. S. (2023). The role of social crowding in pay-what-you-want pricing. Annals of Tourism Research, 101, Article 103596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2023.103596
Zaichkowsky, J. L. (1985). Measuring the involvement construct. Journal of Consumer Research, 12(3), 341–352. https://doi.org/10.1086/208520
Zhu, J., Jiang, L., Dou, W., & Liang, L. (2022). Post, eat, change: The effects of posting food photos on consumers' dining experiences and brand evaluation. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 46, 101–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intmar.2018.10.002
Zoica, C. (2023, June 10). Top 30 trending Instagram hashtags. Hot in Social Media. https://hotinsocialmedia.com/trending-instagram-hashtags/