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研究生：	揭佳蕙 Chieh, Chia-Hui
論文名稱：	成人及兒童於室內外環境中有機磷耐燃劑之暴露評估與生物偵測研究 Study on biomonitoring and exposure assessment of organophosphate flame retardants in indoor and outdoor environment for adults and children
指導教授：	李俊璋 Lee, Ching-Chang
共同指導:	張偉翔 Chang, Wei-Hsiang
學位類別：	碩士 Master
系所名稱：	醫學院 - 環境醫學研究所 Department of Environmental and Occupational Health
論文出版年：	2021
畢業學年度：	109
語文別：	中文
論文頁數：	267
中文關鍵詞：	有機磷耐燃劑、多重環境暴露－生物偵測模式、皮膚擦拭、暴露評估、尿液代謝物
外文關鍵詞：	Organophosphate flame retardant, Multiple exposure-biomonitoring model (MEBM), Skin wipe, Exposure assessment, Urinary metabolites
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歐盟於2011年正式公告禁用溴化耐燃劑於電子電器設備，世界各國亦紛紛提出禁用及管制策略，有機磷耐燃劑(Organophosphate flame retardant, OPFRs)隨即被使用作為溴化耐燃劑的主要替代品之一。OPFRs具有穩定性、阻燃及增塑等多項特性，由於OPFRs在使用時係為物理性添加，而非化學鍵合方式添加至各種室內建材及消費性產品中，因此民眾在使用消費性產品、居家用品及工業產品使用時，OPFRs可能經揮發、磨損和轉移釋放到環境當中，導致人體暴露而產生不良健康影響。各國研究亦指出於室內外環境介質（如室內外空氣、灰塵、底泥等）、食物及飲水中皆可量測到高低不等之OPFRs濃度；而人體暴露研究亦發現可經由吸入、灰塵食入及皮膚接觸等途徑暴露OPFRs，且可於人體尿液及血液中檢測出OPFRs之代謝物。近年來，動物毒理學研究指出OPFRs具有弱雌激素及抗雄性素作用，暴露後可能會導致生殖、甲狀腺、神經及腎臟等毒性。此外，生物蓄積研究亦發現OPFRs具生物累積特性。國內至今尚未針對國人，尤其敏感性族群（兒童），調查環境中OPFRs多重暴露途徑與人體生物偵測之相關性。因此，本研究建置多重暴露-生物偵測模式以探討成人及兒童於室內外環境中空氣吸入、灰塵食入、皮膚接觸等多重途徑之暴露特徵，進而探討其與體內OPFRs內在暴露劑量之相關性。
本研究於臺南地區招募60間家戶之主要照顧者及3-12歲孩童，使用過去已完成家戶中室內外空氣及灰塵樣本之採樣分析資料，並採集成人及兒童之皮膚擦拭樣本及早晨第一泡尿液樣本，分別以氣相層析質譜儀分析皮膚擦拭樣本中11種OPFRs濃度，並以液相層析串聯質譜儀分析尿液樣本中5種OPFRs代謝物濃度，整合所有資料解析臺南地區家戶室內外環境介質及皮膚擦拭樣本中OPFRs濃度分布，以及成人與兒童其尿液中OPFRs代謝物濃度分布特性；利用實測值估算成人及兒童經由多重暴露途徑暴露OPFRs之暴露劑量及其內在吸收劑量，並探討兩者之相關性；另以標準化問卷探討影響因子對OPFRs暴露濃度與劑量之影響。最後綜合所有量測結果，利用多重環境暴露－生物偵測模式探討成人及兒童於室內外環境中多重暴露途徑對其體內吸收劑量之貢獻程度，並確認成人及兒童暴露OPFRs之健康風險是否為可接受風險，進而研析一般民眾（尤其兒童）降低OPFRs暴露之參考建議。
本研究結果顯示，家戶於主要活動空間、次要活動空間及室外活動空間之空氣中OPFRs濃度皆以TCIPP濃度最高，其次為TEP、TiBP及TBOEP；家戶灰塵中OPFRs濃度於主要活動空間及次要活動空間中皆以TBOEP濃度最高，其次為TCIPP、TDCIPP及TPHP；成人及兒童皮膚擦拭樣本中OPFRs皆以TBOEP濃度最高，其次為TCIPP及TDCIPP；成人及兒童尿液樣本中5種OPFRs代謝物皆以DPHP濃度最高，其次為BCIPP。以斯皮爾曼等級相關係數分析，顯示室外空氣樣本與兒童皮膚擦拭樣本中TBP、TCEP及TDCIPP呈顯著正相關；兒童皮膚擦拭樣本與室內空氣樣本中TBP及TCP呈顯著正相關，與室內空氣樣本中TCIPP呈顯著負相關；兒童皮膚擦拭樣本與灰塵樣本中TPHP呈顯著正相關；成人及兒童皮膚擦拭樣本中11種OPFRs皆呈顯著正相關；成人及兒童尿液樣本中5種OPFRs代謝物皆呈顯著正相關；成人尿液樣本中BDCIPP與兒童尿液樣本中BCIPP呈顯著正相關；成人尿液樣本中BCIPP與兒童尿液樣本中DBP呈顯著負相關。進一步估算家戶成人、成年男性、成年女性、兒童、男性兒童及女性兒童經由室內空氣吸入、室外空氣吸入、灰塵食入及皮膚接觸途徑之平均暴露劑量，其中以皮膚接觸途徑之劑量最高(7.50×10-4至1.05×100 µg/kg bw/day)，以灰塵食入途徑之劑量最低(1.11×10-5至8.45×10-3 µg/kg bw/day)。綜合上述四個暴露途徑，在平均暴露情況下，家戶成人、成年男性、成年女性、兒童、男性兒童及女性兒童經由吸入、灰塵食入及皮膚接觸途徑暴露OPFRs之平均暴露劑量，其中以成年女性之劑量最高(4.78×10-3至1.06×100 µg/kg bw/day)，以成年男性之劑量最低(1.80×10-3至5.12×10-1 µg/kg bw/day)。此外，分別估算家戶成人、成年男性、成年女性、兒童、男性兒童及女性兒童經由尿液中OPFRs代謝物濃度推估之體內吸收劑量，其中以成年女性之平均暴露劑量最高(0.658-8.92 µg/kg bw/day)，以男性兒童之平均暴露劑量最低(0.872-3.44 µg/kg bw/day)。另外針對成人及兒童體內吸收劑量與各途徑暴露劑量之相關性進行探討，兒童經由尿液中BDCIPP代謝物濃度推估之體內吸收劑量與經室內外空氣吸入及皮膚接觸途徑暴露TDCIPP之每日暴露劑量呈顯著正相關；兒童經由尿液中DBP代謝物濃度推估之體內吸收劑量與經皮膚接觸途徑暴露TBP之每日暴露劑量呈顯著正相關。而成人體內吸收劑量與其對應之各途徑暴露劑量均無呈現顯著相關，可能原因為成人及兒童暴露程度不同所導致。此外，成人及兒童經由多重暴露途徑之暴露劑量對於內在暴露劑量的相對貢獻，結果顯示均以皮膚接觸途徑為主要貢獻，佔成人及兒童內在暴露劑量之93.2%及84.0%之貢獻百分比，且經由WQS迴歸分析探討成人及兒童經由多重暴露途徑暴露OPFRs之外在暴露劑量對其內在暴露劑量之貢獻權重影響結果，亦以皮膚接觸途徑之貢獻比例為最大（44.6%及37.5%），顯示皮膚接觸途徑為成人及兒童對於OPFRs暴露的主要途徑。最後藉由多重環境暴露－生物偵測模式探討多重暴露途徑對尿液中OPFRs代謝物濃度影響及貢獻，大多數成人及兒童之體內吸收劑量來自於本研究探討之暴露途徑的貢獻。至於非致癌風險評估中，本研究成人及兒童於各暴露途徑中11種OPFRs之危害指數(Hazard index, HI)均小於1，預期將不會造成顯著健康危害，表示暴露低於會產生不良反應的閾值，為可接受風險；關於致癌風險評估，成人及兒童經由吸入、灰塵食入及皮膚接觸途徑中暴露TBP、TCEP及TEHP之Risk均小於10-6，表示沒有致癌風險。
綜合上述結果，家戶成人及兒童OPFRs暴露評估中顯示均以皮膚接觸為主要暴露途徑，且經由生物偵測評估結果得知成人及兒童體內OPFRs之內在暴露情形，進而瞭解皮膚接觸途徑為體內吸收劑量之主要貢獻來源。此外，亦藉由多重環境暴露－生物偵測模式得知本研究探討之多重暴露途徑對尿液中OPFRs代謝物濃度影響及貢獻，以尿液代謝物的生物監測數據和多重暴露途徑之每日暴露劑量的相對累積頻率圖得知大多數成人及兒童之體內吸收劑量來自於本研究探討之室內空氣吸入、室外空氣吸入、灰塵食入及皮膚接觸途徑的貢獻。

The objectives of present study are to explore the profile and distribution of organophosphate flame retardant (OPFRs) in the indoor and outdoor environment from Taiwanese resident houses, and to explore the exposure characteristics of OPFRs through multiple pathways (inhalation, ingestion and dermal absorption) for adults and children. TBOEP was the most abundant OPFRs followed by TCIPP in house dust and skin wipe from adults and children. TCIPP was responsible for almost all OPFRs content in indoor and outdoor air from households. The urinary concentrations of adults and children ranged from 0.176 to 0.475 μg/L and 0.192 to 0.683 μg/L, respectively. The estimated average daily exposure dose of Σ11OPFRs for adults and children via inhalation of indoor air, inhalation of outdoor air, ingestion of house dust and dermal absorption were assessed. The results showed that the OPFRs dose from dermal absorption was the highest, and the ingestion of house dust was the lowest. The daily intakes dose of DBP back estimated from urinary metabolite concentrations of children was significantly positively associated with the daily exposure dose of TBP via dermal absorption. The established multiple exposure-biomonitoring model (MEBM) showed that most of the internal dose in adults and children was contributed from multiple exposure pathways via dermal absorption, inhalation of indoor air, inhalation of outdoor air, and ingestion of house dust. The non- carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk assessment showed that the exposure risk is acceptable and cause no significant damage.

摘要I
Extended AbstractIV
致謝VII
目錄IX
表目錄XII
圖目錄XV
第一章前言1
1-1. 研究背景1
1-2. 研究問題2
1-3. 研究目的2
1-4. 研究意義2
第二章文獻回顧4
2-1. 有機磷耐燃劑之物化特性及使用情形4
2-2. 有機磷耐燃劑之室外環境流布5
2-3. 有機磷耐燃劑之人體暴露6
2-3-1. 吸入途徑7
1.室外環境流布7
2.室內環境流布7
2-3-2. 食入途徑8
1.灰塵8
2-3-3. 皮膚接觸途徑9
2-4. 有機磷耐燃劑之代謝機制及人體內代謝物濃度調查研究10
2-4-1. 有機磷耐燃劑之代謝機制10
2-4-2. 一般成人體內有機磷耐燃劑代謝物濃度12
2-4-3. 兒童體內有機磷耐燃劑代謝物濃度13
2-5. 有機磷耐燃劑毒性14
2-5-1. 動物毒性14
1.生殖毒性14
2.甲狀腺毒性14
3.神經發育毒性15
4.腎臟毒性15
2-5-2. 人體健康影響15
1.生殖15
2.甲狀腺16
3.神經發育16
4.腎臟16
2-6. 尿液及皮膚擦拭樣本中有機磷耐燃劑及其代謝物之分析方法回顧17
2-7. 各國成人及兒童暴露有機磷耐燃劑之暴露評估18
2-8. 各國有機磷耐燃劑之管制規範與參考劑量21
第三章材料與方法24
3-1. 研究架構24
3-2. 家戶及研究對象選取24
3-3. 環境中有機磷耐燃劑暴露來源調查評估之標準化問卷24
3-4. 採樣策略及分析方法25
3-4-1. 環境介質及皮膚擦拭樣本之採樣及分析方法25
3-4-1-1. 試藥及溶劑27
3-4-1-2. 分析儀器28
3-4-2. 家戶中成人及兒童尿液樣本之採樣及分析方法29
3-4-2-1. 尿液樣本前處理方法30
3-4-2-2. 尿液樣本分析條件31
3-5. 樣本分析之品保品管規範32
3-6. 成人及兒童有機磷耐燃劑暴露評估37
3-6-1. 由環境介質及皮膚擦拭樣本濃度推估有機磷耐燃劑暴露劑量37
3-6-2. 由生物偵測濃度推估有機磷耐燃劑暴露劑量38
3-6-3. 有機磷耐燃劑之環境多重暴露－生物偵測模式建置39
3-7. 風險特徵描述40
3-8. 資料處理與統計分析41
第四章結果與討論43
4-1. 成人及兒童基本資料43
4-2. 室內外環境介質及皮膚擦拭樣本中有機磷耐燃劑濃度及分布43
4-2-1. 室內外空氣中有機磷耐燃劑濃度及分布情形43
4-2-2. 家戶灰塵中有機磷耐燃劑濃度及分布情形45
4-2-3. 成人及兒童皮膚擦拭樣本中有機磷耐燃劑濃度及分布情形47
4-2-4. 環境介質及皮膚擦拭樣本中有機磷耐燃劑組成分析48
4-2-5. 有機磷耐燃劑濃度主成分分析49
4-3. 室內外環境介質及皮膚擦拭樣本中有機磷耐燃劑濃度之相關性51
4-3-1. 室內空氣與灰塵中有機磷耐燃劑濃度之相關性51
4-3-2. 室內外環境介質中有機磷耐燃劑濃度之相關性52
4-3-3. 成人皮膚擦拭樣本與室內外環境介質中有機磷耐燃劑濃度之相關性54
4-3-4. 兒童皮膚擦拭樣本與室內外環境介質中有機磷耐燃劑濃度之相關性56
4-3-5. 成人及兒童皮膚擦拭樣本中有機磷耐燃劑濃度之相關性57
4-4. 成人及兒童尿液中有機磷代謝物之濃度分布及相關性58
4-4-1. 成人及兒童尿液中有機磷代謝物濃度及組成分析58
4-4-2. 成人及兒童尿液中有機磷代謝物濃度之相關性61
4-5. 成人及兒童有機磷耐燃劑之每日暴露劑量62
4-5-1. 成人經由室內外空氣吸入、灰塵食入、皮膚接觸途徑暴露有機磷耐燃劑之每日暴露劑量62
4-5-2. 兒童經由室內外空氣吸入、灰塵食入、皮膚接觸途徑暴露有機磷耐燃劑之每日暴露劑量68
4-6. 成人及兒童每日有機磷耐燃劑之體內吸收劑量及其與各途徑暴露劑量之相關性73
4-6-1. 成人每日之有機磷耐燃劑體內吸收劑量73
4-6-2. 兒童每日之有機磷耐燃劑體內吸收劑量74
4-6-3. 成人及兒童每日有機磷耐燃劑體內吸收劑量之相關性76
4-6-4. 成人及兒童每日有機磷耐燃劑體內吸收劑量與各途徑暴露劑量之相關性76
4-6-5. 成人及兒童外在暴露劑量對於內在暴露劑量之貢獻百分比77
4-7. 有機磷耐燃劑之環境多重暴露－生物偵測模式推估結果78
4-7-1. 成人尿液代謝物的生物監測數據和多重暴露途徑之每日暴露劑量的相對累積頻率78
4-7-2. 兒童尿液代謝物的生物監測數據和多重暴露途徑之每日暴露劑量的相對累積頻率79
4-7-3. 經由多重暴露途徑暴露有機磷耐燃劑之外在暴露劑量影響內在暴露劑量之權重分析79
4-8. 非致癌及致癌性風險評估80
4-8-1. 非致癌性風險評估80
4-8-2. 致癌性風險評估88
第五章結論與建議94
5-1. 結論94
5-2. 建議95
研究限制97
參考文獻98
附錄敏感性分析213
附件一同意人體研究證明書230
附件二人體試驗同意書233
附件三建築特性及室內環境中有機磷耐燃劑暴露環境調查及生活習慣調查問卷238

表目錄
Table 2-1 The physical and chemical properties of organophosphate flame retardants113
Table 2-2 The application of organophosphate flame retardants114
Table 2-3 Concentration distribution of 11 OPFRs in the indoor and outdoor air from different countries115
Table 2-4 Concentration distribution of 11 OPFRs in the house dust from different countries116
Table 2-5 Concentration distribution of 11 OPFRs in the skin wipe from different countries117
Table 2-6 Summary of major metabolites of OPFRs and half life from recent OPFRs metabolism studies118
Table 2-7 Urinary concentrations of organophosphate metabolites in adults and children from different countries119
Table 2-8 Summary of analysis methods for organophosphate metabolites in urine from different countries120
Table 2-9 Summary of analysis methods for organophosphate flame retardant in skin wipe from different countries122
Table 2-10 Statistical summary of human exposure assessment to OPFRs via inhalation, ingestion and dermal absorption from different countries123
Table 2-11 Reference dose and toxicological target organs of organophosphate flame retardant124
Table 3-1 Analysis parameters of OPFRs by gas chromatography mass spectrometer125
Table 3-2 Analysis parameters of OPFRs metabolites by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry126
Table 3-3 Multiple reaction monitoring for quantitative biomarker analysis in OPFRs metabolites127
Table 3-4 Calibration curve, instrument detection limit and method detection limit for each OPFR analyte128
Table 3-5 Calibration curve and method detection limit for each OPFR metabolites analyte129
Table 3-6 Intraday and interday accuracy and precision of 11 OPFRs in skin wipe samples130
Table 3-7 Recovery of the quality check (QC) sample of 11 OPFRs in skin wipe samples131
Table 3-8 Recovery of the quality check (QC) sample of 5 OPFRs metabolites in urine samples132
Table 3-9 Recovery of the matrix spike samples and spike duplicate of 11 OPFRs in skin wipe samples133
Table 3-10 Recovery of the matrix spike samples and spike duplicate of 5 OPFRs metabolites in urine samples134
Table 3-11 Daily inhalation rates for health risk assessment in population135
Table 4-1-1 Demographic characteristics of 89 adults and 89 children136
Table 4-2-1 Concentrations of 11 OPFRs in indoor and outdoor samples collected from primary, secondary and outdoor activity space for households137
Table 4-2-2 Concentrations of 11 OPFRs in house dust samples collected from primary and secondary activity space for households138
Table 4-2-3 Concentrations of 11 OPFRs in skin wipe samples collected from adults and children139
Table 4-3-1 Correlations between individual OPFR concentrations in indoor air and house dust140
Table 4-3-2 Correlations between individual OPFR concentrations in outdoor air-house dust and outdoor air-indoor air141
Table 4-3-3 Correlations between individual OPFR concentrations in skin wipe of adults-outdoor air and skin wipe of children-outdoor air142
Table 4-3-4 Correlations between individual OPFR concentrations in skin wipe of adults-indoor air and skin wipe of adults-house dust143
Table 4-3-5 Correlations between individual OPFR concentrations in skin wipe of children-indoor air and skin wipe of children-house dust144
Table 4-3-6 Correlations between individual OPFR concentrations in skin wipe of adults and skin wipe of children145
Table 4-4-1 Unadjusted urinary concentrations of 5 OPFRs metabolites in urinary samples collected from adults and children146
Table 4-4-2 Creatinine-adjusted urinary concentrations of 5 OPFRs metabolites in urinary samples collected from adults and children147
Table 4-4-3 Correlations between unadjusted urine levels and creatinine-adjusted urine levels for adults and children148
Table 4-5-1 Human exposure assessment for OPFRs via indoor air inhalation149
Table 4-5-2 Human exposure assessment using uncertainty analysis for OPFRs via indoor air inhalation150
Table 4-5-3 Human exposure assessment for OPFRs via outdoor air inhalation151
Table 4-5-4 Human exposure assessment using uncertainty analysis for OPFRs via outdoor air inhalation152
Table 4-5-5 Human exposure assessment for OPFRs via house dust ingestion153
Table 4-5-6 Human exposure assessment using uncertainty analysis for OPFRs via house dust ingestion154
Table 4-5-7 Human exposure assessment for OPFRs via dermal dust absorption155
Table 4-5-8 Human exposure assessment using uncertainty analysis for OPFRs via dermal dust absorption156
Table 4-5-9 Human exposure assessment for OPFRs total exposure via inhalation, ingestion and dermal dust absorption157
Table 4-5-10 Human exposure assessment using uncertainty analysis for OPFRs total exposure via inhalation, ingestion and dermal dust absorption158
Table 4-6-1 Estimated daily intakes to OPFRs calculated based on urinary metabolite concentrations159
Table 4-6-2 Estimated daily intakes to OPFRs calculated using uncertainty analysis based on urinary metabolite concentrations160
Table 4-6-3 Correlations between daily intake of OPFRs metabolites for adults and children161
Table 4-6-4 Correlations between external dose and internal dose for adults and children162
Table 4-6-5 Correlations between outdoor air inhalation exposure dose and internal dose for adults and children163
Table 4-6-6 Correlations between external dose of multiple exposure pathways and internal dose for adults and children164
Table 4-7-1 The weighted average for WQS index with external dose and internal dose for adults and childrenab167
Table 4-8-1 Adults and children exposed to 11 OPFRs hazard quotient (HQ) via indoor air inhalation	168
Table 4-8-2 Adults and children exposed to 11 OPFRs hazard quotient (HQ) using uncertainty analysis via indoor air inhalation169
Table 4-8-3 Adults and children exposed to 11 OPFRs hazard quotient (HQ) via outdoor air inhalation170
Table 4-8-4 Adults and children exposed to 11 OPFRs hazard quotient (HQ) using uncertainty analysis via outdoor air inhalation171
Table 4-8-5 Adults and children exposed to 11 OPFRs hazard quotient (HQ) via house dust ingestion172
Table 4-8-6 Adults and children exposed to 11 OPFRs hazard quotient (HQ) using uncertainty analysis via house dust ingestion173
Table 4-8-7 Adults and children exposed to 11 OPFRs hazard quotient (HQ) via dermal dust absorption174
Table 4-8-8 Adults and children exposed to 11 OPFRs hazard quotient (HQ) using uncertainty analysis via dermal dust absorption175
Table 4-8-9 Adults and children exposed to 11 OPFRs hazard index (HI) through different exposure pathways176
Table 4-8-10 Adults and children exposed to 11 OPFRs hazard index (HI) using uncertainty analysis through different exposure pathways177
Table 4-8-11 Adults and children exposed to 5 OPFRs (TiBP, TBP, TCEP, TCIPP, TEHP) hazard index (HI) through different exposure pathways178
Table 4-8-12 Adults and children exposed to 5 OPFRs (TiBP, TBP, TCEP, TCIPP, TEHP) hazard index (HI) using uncertainty analysis through different exposure pathways179
Table 4-8-13 Adults and children exposed to 3 OPFRs (TiBP, TBP, TEHP) hazard index (HI) through different exposure pathways180
Table 4-8-14 Adults and children exposed to  3 OPFRs (TiBP, TBP, TEHP) hazard index (HI) using uncertainty analysis through different exposure pathways181
Table 4-8-15 The cancer risk of TBP exposure via inhalation, ingestion and dermal absorption based on the SFO for adults and children182
Table 4-8-16 The cancer risk of TBP exposure via inhalation, ingestion and dermal absorption based on the SFO using uncertainty analysis for adults and children183
Table 4-8-17 The cancer risk of TCEP exposure via inhalation, ingestion and dermal absorption based on the SFO for adults and children184
Table 4-8-18 The cancer risk of TCEP exposure via inhalation, ingestion and dermal absorption based on the SFO using uncertainty analysis for adults and children185
Table 4-8-19 The cancer risk of TEHP exposure via inhalation, ingestion and dermal absorption based on the SFO for adults and children186
Table 4-8-20 The cancer risk of TEHP exposure via inhalation, ingestion and dermal absorption based on the SFO using uncertainty analysis for adults and children187

圖目錄
Figure 2-1 General metabolic pathways of OPFRs (A: Chlorinated OPFRs) 188
Figure 2-2 General metabolic pathways of OPFRs (B: Alkyl-OPFRs) 189
Figure 2-3 General metabolic pathways of OPFRs (C: Aryl-OPFRs) 190
Figure 3-1 Research architecture191
Figure 3-2 Analysis flow chart of indoor and outdoor air sample192
Figure 3-3 Analysis flow chart of house dust sample193
Figure 3-4 Analysis flow chart of skin wipe sample194
Figure 3-5 Analysis flow chart of urine sample195
Figure 3-6 Multiple exposure-biomonitoring model (MEBM) 196
Figure 4-1 Compositional profiles of 11 OPFRs and OPFRs ester groups in indoor and outdoor air197
Figure 4-2 Compositional profiles of 11 OPFRs and OPFRs ester groups in house dust	198
Figure 4-3 Compositional profiles of 11 OPFRs and OPFRs ester groups in skin wipe199
Figure 4-4 PCA scores and loadings of OPFRs in indoor and outdoor air200
Figure 4-5 PCA scores and loadings of OPFRs in house dust201
Figure 4-6 PCA scores and loadings of OPFRs in skin wipe of adults and children202
Figure 4-7 PCA scores and loadings of OPFRs in indoor air, outdoor air, house dust and skin wipe of adults and children203
Figure 4-8 Compositional profiles of 5 OPFRs metabolites in adults and children204
Figure 4-9 Compositional profiles of human exposure assessment for OPFRs via indoor air inhalation205
Figure 4-10 Compositional profiles of human exposure assessment for OPFRs via outdoor air inhalation206
Figure 4-11 Compositional profiles of human exposure assessment for OPFRs via house dust ingestion207
Figure 4-12 Compositional profiles of human exposure assessment for OPFRs via dermal dust absorption208
Figure 4-13 Compositional profiles of estimated daily intakes to OPFRs calculated based on urinary metabolite concentrations209
Figure 4-14 The percentage contribution of the external dose via inhalation of air, ingestion of dust and dermal contact with both to the internal dose for adults and children (A) Adults (B) Children210
Figure 4-15 Relative cumulative frequency of daily intake using biomonitoring data of urinary metabolites and the external dose of all exposure pathways for adults211
Figure 4-16 Relative cumulative frequency of daily intake using biomonitoring data of urinary metabolites and the external dose of all exposure pathways for children212
Figure S1 The percentage contribution of exposure parameters to the external dose of TEP for adults and children214
Figure S2 The percentage contribution of exposure parameters to the external dose of TiBP for adults and children215
Figure S3 The percentage contribution of exposure parameters to the external dose of TBP for adults and children216
Figure S4 The percentage contribution of exposure parameters to the external dose of TCEP for adults and children217
Figure S5 The percentage contribution of exposure parameters to the external dose of TCIPP for adults and children218
Figure S6 The percentage contribution of exposure parameters to the external dose of TDCIPP for adults and children219
Figure S7 The percentage contribution of exposure parameters to the external dose of TBOEP for adults and children220
Figure S8 The percentage contribution of exposure parameters to the external dose of TEHP for adults and children221
Figure S9 The percentage contribution of exposure parameters to the external dose of TPHP for adults and children222
Figure S10 The percentage contribution of exposure parameters to the external dose of EHDPP for adults and children223
Figure S11 The percentage contribution of exposure parameters to the external dose of TCP for adults and children224
Figure S12 The percentage contribution of exposure parameters to the internal dose of BCIPP for adults and children225
Figure S13 The percentage contribution of exposure parameters to the internal dose of DBP for adults and children226
Figure S14 The percentage contribution of exposure parameters to the internal dose of DPHP for adults and children227
Figure S15 The percentage contribution of exposure parameters to the internal dose of BDCIPP for adults and children228
Figure S16 The percentage contribution of exposure parameters to the internal dose of BBOEP for adults and children229
                                    

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