研究目的：本研究欲了解育有注意力不足/過動症(attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder，ADHD)之母親對於孩童行為的歸因型態，與一般孩童之母親對於孩童行為的歸因型態兩者間之異同；並探討此兩歸因型態與性情歸因(dispositional attribution)以及自利歸因偏誤(self-serving bias)間的關係，亦藉由IPSAQ及McArthur之歸因典範探討訊息引導對歸因偏誤之影響。

方法：本研究主要的參與者為育有國小孩童之母親，共114位；其中育有一般孩童的母親有66位，育有ADHD孩童的母親有48位。其中一名一般孩童的母親與一名ADHD孩童之母親，因符合排除條款而排除。參與者將填答基於IPSAQ與McArthur典範所編制之歸因問卷，對孩童之利社會行為及ADHD相關問題行為進行歸因。

結果：於IPSAQ典範中，兩組孩童之母親參與者，皆呈現個人化歸因偏誤(personalizing bias)及自利歸因偏誤(self-serving bias)，且ADHD孩童之母親於此兩偏誤較一般孩童之母親來的明顯。而於McArthur典範中，兩組孩童之母親皆有自利歸因偏誤，但一般孩童之母親無個人化歸因偏誤，而ADHD孩童之母親則有此偏誤。而對照兩歸因典範可見，IPSAQ典範之偏誤狀況較為明顯，McArthur典範之偏誤狀況下降，且於後者其兩組孩童母親之歸因偏誤差異縮小。

結論：與一般孩童之母親相比，ADHD孩童之母親對於孩童行為之整體歸因型態較不利於孩童，且多將ADHD相關行為問題視為孩童本身之因素；而對正向行為則較易視為母親本身之因素，歸因型態較有利於自己。然父母歸因型態會影響ADHD孩童之治療的為與成效，需於後續對其歸因型態進行介入，並以後續研究討論其介入成效與實務應用。

SUMMARY
The aim of this study is to investigate the attribution styles of the mothers, who have children with ADHD or typical children, and to investigate the relationship between the attribution styles and dispositional attribution/self-serving bias. 65 mothers of typical children and 47 mothers of children with ADHD participated this study. They filled the attribution questionnaire, which based on the paradigms of IPSAQ and McArthur, including several items of prosocial behaviors and disturbance behaviors of children. The result showed that the attribution styles of mothers, who have children with ADHD, tended to make the negative attribution to children. They tended to attribute the negative events/behaviors to the disposition of children, and to attribute the positive events/behaviors to themselves. The attribution style of them showed self-serving bias and personalizing bias. Realization the attribution styles can help us to develop the parenting program, and to adjust the cognition of parents. To advance, it can also help us to improve the effects of treatment to children with ADHD.

INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this study is to investigate the attribution styles of mothers, who have children with ADHD or typical children, to compare the attribution styles of them, and to investigate the relationship between attribution styles with dispositional attribution/self-serving bias. There were studies showed that the attribution of parents regarding child behaviors would be related to the treatment which they’re willing to get for their children, the maintenance in the treatment, and the effects of treatment. Dix and his collages (Dix & Grusec, 1985; Dix, Ruble, Grusec, & Nixon, 1986) proposed a social cognitive model of parental attributions in parent- children interactions. They tried to explain the relation between children behaviors, parental attribution, and parents’ reaction thought the model. Johnston & Ohan (2005) integrated the relevant studies to investigate the model. They found child behaviors behaviors would affect the parental attribution, and the parental attribution would influence parents’ reaction. Besides, Johnston , Chen, & Ohan (2006) found that parents of children with ADHD tended to make the child-negative attributional causes. That is, they tended to attribute the negative behaviors of children to the internal, uncontrollable, global, and stable cause. And, they tended to attribute the positive behaviors of children to the external, uncontrollable, and less stable cause. To realize the mechanism underlying the attribution styles, this study would investigate the relationship between the attribution styles and dispositional attribution and self-serving bias.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
65 mothers of children with ADHD and 47 mothers of typical children participated this study. They filled the attribution questionnaire. There’re two parts in the questionnaire, the first part based on the paradigm of IPSAQ and the second part based on the paradigm of McArthur. The questionnaire was designed in the context of parent-child interaction, included 16 sentences described prosocial behaviors of children and 16 sentences described disturbance behaviors of children. In IPSAQ paradigm, there’re the sentences described children behaviors with 3 following questions, the mothers asked to image their children behave liked the sentences, and to attribute the cause of the behaviors to the child, the mother or the situation. In McArthur paradigm, there’ re also sentences described children behavior, but the sentences showed in different conditions with HHH, HHL, HLH, and LLH. Mothers were asked to image their child behave liked the sentences, and to attribute the cause to child, mother, situation or combination causes from the above.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this study, the result showed that both groups of mothers showed the self-serving bias and personalizing bias in IPSAQ paradigms, but the mothers of children with ADHD showed larger bias. In McArthur paradigm, both groups of mothers decreased the bias, although both of them showed the self-serving bias, mothers of typical children showed no personalizing bias, and mothers of children with ADHD still showed personalizing bias. In general, mothers of children with ADHD showed negative attribution styles to their children. The result is consistent with the previous studies(Huang et. al., 2014; Johnston, Chen,& Ohan, 2006; Johnston and Ohan, 2005). When mothers got more information of the behaviors, they can make logical attribution, to consider the effects from the situation. But, in our result, the mothers of children with ADHD didn’t decrease the personalizing bias in McArthur paradigm. There’re the need of further study to discuss.

CONCLUSION
The mothers of children with ADHD showed negative attribution style to children. The attribution styles not only affect the cognition of mothers, but also the effect of treatment on children. Knowing the attribution styles can help us design the cognitive treatment for mothers, help them to adjust their cognition and attribution styles to their children. It does improve the effects of parenting program(Bor, Sanders, &Markie-Dadds, 2002; Bugental et al., 2002; Melidonis & Bry, 1995), and the effects of treatment on children.

丁興祥、李美枝、陳皎眉 (1980)。 社會心理學。國立空中大學。
李于欣（2013）。注意力缺失過動疾患兒童母親的負向歸因風格。國立成功大學，台南市。
許哲維 (2016)。比較母親與非母親對兒童行為的歸因方式及腦活化。國立成功大學，台南市。
曾智豐 (2013)。家長社經背景對子女教養行為的影響-以個人價值觀與教育目的認知為中介變項。嘉大教育研究學刊，31，85-118。
蘇素美 (2013)。[歸因型態量表] 之編製及其信、效度研究。教育研究學報，47(2)， 21-45。
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1975). A Bayesian analysis of attribution processes. Psychological bulletin, 82(2), 261-277.
Anderson, C. A., & Slusher, M. P. (1986). Relocating motivational effects: A synthesis of cognitive and motivational effects on attributions for success and failure. Social Cognition, 4(3), 270-292.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). American Psychiatric Pub.
Armbruster, P., & Kazdin, A. E. (1994). Attrition in child psychotherapy. In T. H. Ollendick & R. J. Prinz (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 16, pp. 81-108). New York: Plenum.
Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American psychologist, 54(7), 462-479.
Barkley, R. A. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment. 3rd edition. New York, NY: Guilford Press, 2006.
Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., & Tice, D. M. (2007). The strength model of self-control. Current directions in psychological science, 16(6), 351-355.
Bern, D. J. (1972). Self-perception theory”. In: L. Berkowitz (ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol. 6. New York: Academic Press.
Bor, W., Sanders, W. R., & Markie-Dadds, C. (2002). The effects of the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program on preschool children with co-occurring disruptive behavior and attentional/ hyperactive difficulties. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 6, 571-587.
Brown, R. T., Borden, K. A., Wynne, M. E., Spunt, A. L., & Clingerman, S. R. (1987). Compliance with pharmacological and cognitive treatments for attention deficit disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26(4), 521-526.
Bugental, D. B., Ellerson, P. C., Lin, E. K., Rainey, B., Kokotovic, A., & O’Hara, N. (2002). A cognitive approach to child abuse prevention. Journal of Family Psychology, 16, 243-258.
Bugental, D. B., & Johnston, C. (2000). Parental and child cognitions in the context of the family. Annual review of psychology, 51(1), 315-344.
Chang, L., Chen, B. B., & Ji, L. Q. (2011). Attributions and attitudes of mothers and fathers in China. Parenting, 11(2-3), 102-115.
Chase, V. M., Hertwig, R., & Gigerenzer, G. (1998). Visions of rationality. Trends in cognitive sciences, 2(6), 206-214.
Chiang, T. M., Barrett, K. C., & Nunez, N. N. (2000). Maternal attributions of Taiwanese and American toddlers’ misdeeds and accomplishments. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31(3), 349-368.
Day, L., & Maltby, J. (2000). Can Kinderman and Bentalls’ suggestions for a personal and situational attributions questionnaire be used to examine all aspects of attributional style?. Personality and individual differences, 29(6), 1047-1055.
Dix, T. H., & Grusec, J. E. (1985). Parent attribution processes in the socialization of children. In I. Sigel (Ed.), Parental belief systems: The psychological consequences for children (pp. 201-233). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Dix, T. H., Ruble, D. N., Grusec, J. E., & Nixon, S. (1986). Social cognition in parents: Inferential and affection reactions to children of three age levels. Child Development, 57, 879-894.
Duda, J. L., & Allison, M. T. (1989). The attributional theory of achievement motivation: Cross-cultural considerations. International Journal of intercultural relations, 13(1), 37-55.
Försterling, F., & Rudolph, U. (1988). Situations, attributions, and the evaluation of reactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(2), 225-232.
Gaub, M., & Carlson, C. L. (1997). Gender differences in ADHD: a meta-analysis and critical review. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(8), 1036-1045.
Gilbert, D. T., Pelham, B. W., & Krull, D. S. (1988). On cognitive busyness: When person perceivers meet persons perceived. Journal of personality and social psychology, 54(5), 733-740.
Gilbert, D. T., & Malone, P. S. (1995). The correspondence bias. Psychological bulletin, 117(1), 21-38.
Gretarsson, S. J., & Gelfand, D. M. (1988). Mothers' attributions regarding their children's social behavior and personality characteristics. Developmental psychology, 24(2), 264-269.
Harris, L. T., Todorov, A., & Fiske, S. T. (2005). Attributions on the brain: neuro-imaging dispositional inferences, beyond theory of mind. Neuroimage, 28(4), 763-769.
Hastings, P. D., & Rubin, K. H. (1999). Predicting mothers' beliefs about preschool‐aged children's social behavior: Evidence for maternal attitudes moderating child effects. Child Development, 70(3), 722-741.
Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley.
Hilton, D. J., & Slugoski, B. R. (1986). Knowledge-based causal attribution: The abnormal conditions focus model. Psychological review, 93(1), 75-88.
Hoza, B., Owens, J. S., Pelham, W. E., Jr., Swanson, J. M., Conners, C. K., Hinshaw, S. P., Arnold, L. E., & Kraemer, H. C. (2000). Parent cognitions as predictors of child treatment response in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28(6), 569-584.
Huang, H. L., Li, S. S., Cheng, C. P., Lin, C. Y., Yang, Y. K., & Huang, J. H. (2014). The negative attribution processes of mothers of children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Research in developmental disabilities, 35(1), 87-98.
Jensen, P. S. (1999). A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56(12), 1073-1086.
Johnston, C., Chen, M., & Ohan, J. (2006). Mothers' attributions for behavior in nonproblem boys, boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant behavior.Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35(1), 60-71.
Johnston, C., & Freeman, W. (1997). Attributions for child behavior in parents of children without behavior disorders and children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65(4), 636-645.
Johnston, C., & Freeman, W. (2002). Parents' beliefs about ADHD: Implications for assessment and treatment. The ADHD Report, 10(1), 6-9.
Johnston, C., & Leung, D. (2001). Effects of medication, behavioral, and combined treatments on parents’ and children’s attributions for the behavior of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 67-76.
Johnston, C., & Ohan, J. L. (2005). The importance of parental attributions in families of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity and disruptive behavior disorders. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8(3), 167-182.
Jones, E. E. (1979). The rocky road from acts to dispositions. American Psychologist, 34(2), 107.
Jones, E. E., & Davis, K. E. (1965). From acts to dispositions the attribution process in person perception. Advances in experimental social psychology, 2, 219-266.
Jones, E. E., & Harris, V. A. (1967). The attribution of attitudes. Journal of experimental social psychology, 3(1), 1-24.
Kakar, S. (2008). Culture and psyche. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Kazdin, A. E., & Wassell, G. (1999). Barriers to treatment participation and therapeutic change among children referred for conduct disorder. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28(2), 160-172.
Kelley, H. H. (1967). Attribution theory in social psychology. In Nebraska symposium on motivation. University of Nebraska Press.
Kinderman, P., & Bentall, R. P. (1996). A new measure of causal locus: the internal, personal and situational attributions questionnaire. Personality and Individual differences, 20(2), 261-264.
Lieberman, M. D., Gaunt, R., Gilbert, D. T., & Trope, Y. (2002). Reflexion and reflection: A social cognitive neuroscience approach to attributional inference.Advances in experimental social psychology, 34, 199-249.
Malle, B. F. (2011). Attribution theories: How people make sense of behavior.Theories in social psychology, 72-95.
McArthur, L. A. (1972). The how and what of why: Some determinants and consequences of causal attribution. Journal of personality and Social Psychology, 22(2), 171-193.
McLeod, S. A. (2010). Attribution theory. Simply Psychology.
Medcof, J. W. (1990). PEAT: An integrative model of attribution processes. Advances in experimental social psychology, 23, 111-209.
Melidonis, G. G., & Bry, B. H. (1995). Effects of therapist exceptions questions on blaming and positive statements in families with adolescent behavior problems. Journal of Family Psychology, 9(4), 451-457.
Miller, D. T., & Ross, M. (1975). Self-serving biases in the attribution of causality: Fact or fiction. Psychological bulletin, 82(2), 213-225.
Montemayor, R., & Ranganathan, C. (2012). Asian-Indian parents’ attributions about the causes of child behavior: A replication and extension with parents from Chennai, India. The Journal of genetic psychology, 173(4), 374-392.
Morrissey-Kane, E., & Prinz, R. J. (1999). Engagement in child and adolescent treatment: The role of parental cognitions and attributions. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 2, 183-198.
Nisbett, R. E., Caputo, C., Legant, P., & Marecek, J. (1973). Behavior as seen by the actor and as seen by the observer. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27(2), 154-164.
Nix, R. L., Pinderhughes, E. E., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S., & McFadyen‐Ketchum, S. A. (1999). The relation between mothers' hostile attribution tendencies and children's externalizing behavior problems: The mediating role of mothers' harsh discipline practices. Child development, 70(4), 896-909.
Peterson, C., Semmel, A., Von Baeyer, C., Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Seligman, M. E. (1982). The attributional style questionnaire. Cognitive therapy and research, 6(3), 287-299.
Reeder, G. D., & Brewer, M. B. (1979). A schematic model of dispositional attribution in interpersonal perception. Psychological Review, 86(1), 61-79.
Reimers, T. M., Wacker, D. P., Derby, K. M., & Cooper, L. J. (1995). Relation between parental attributions and the acceptability of behavioral treatments for their child's behavior problems. Behavioral Disorders, 20(3), 171-178.
Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. Advances in experimental social psychology, 10, 173-220.
Ross, L. D., Amabile, T. M., & Steinmetz, J. L. (1977). Social roles, social control, and biases in social-perception processes. Journal of personality and social psychology, 35(7), 485-494.
Smith Slep, A. M., & O'Leary, S. G. (1998). The effects of maternal attributions on parenting: An experimental analysis. Journal of Family Psychology, 12(2), 234-243.
Snyder, M.L., Stephan, W.G., Rosenfield, D., 1978. Attributional egotism, in: Harevey, J.H., Ickes, W., Kidd, R.F. (Eds.), New Directions in Attribution Research, Vol. 2. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 91-120.
Strassberg, Z. (1995). Social Information Processing in Compliance Situations by Mothers of Behavior‐Problem Boys. Child Development, 66(2), 376-389.
Strassberg, Z. (1997). Levels of analysis in cognitive bases of maternal disciplinary dysfunction. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25(3), 209-215.
Taylor, S.E., 1998. The social being in social psychology, in: Gilbert, D.T., Fiske, S.T., Lindzey, G. (Eds.), The Handbook of Social Psychology, fourth ed., Vol. 1. McGraw Hill, New York, pp.58-95.
Trope, Y. (1986). Identification and inferential processes in dispositional attribution. Psychological review, 93(3), 239-257.
Weiner, B. (1979). A theory of motivation for some classroom experiences. Journal of educational psychology, 71(1), 3-25.
Weiner, B. (1982). An attribution theory of motivation and emotion. Series in Clinical & Community Psychology: Achievement, Stress, & Anxiety.
Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological review, 92(4), 548-573.
Weary, G., & Edwards, J. A., & Riley, S. (1994). Attribution. In Encyclopedia of Human Behavior , 1, 291-299.
Zuckerman, M. (1979). Attributions of success and failure revisited, or: The motivational bias is alive and well in attribution theory. Journal of Personality, 47, 245-287.

相關參考網頁：
國家教育研究所：雙語詞彙、學術名詞暨辭書資訊網(http://terms.naer.edu.tw/detail/1305462/)