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研究生： 林耀加
Lin, Yao-Chia
論文名稱： 量子點敏化光電極在太陽能轉換之應用-評論與應用實例
Quantum Dot-Sensitized Photoelectrodes for Solar Energy Conversion: Review and Application Examples
指導教授： 鄧熙聖
Teng, Hsi-Sheng
學位類別： 碩士
Master
系所名稱： 工學院 - 化學工程學系
Department of Chemical Engineering
論文出版年： 2014
畢業學年度： 102
語文別： 英文
論文頁數： 158
中文關鍵詞： 量子點光電極光電轉換元件探討 、硫/硒化鎘量子點 、敏化太陽能電池
外文關鍵詞： review of QD-based optoelectronic devices, CdSxSe1-x QDs, sensitized solar cell
相關次數： 點閱：84  下載：1 
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    • 全球能源危機所帶來對於乾淨的綠能需求目前已成了全世界最重要的一個課題，而以光伏或光電化學反應來將太陽光轉換為電力，亦即太陽能發電，也漸漸地被投入開發。從第一代及第二代太陽能電池蓬勃發展之後，以單晶矽或多晶矽等薄膜所形成之太陽能電池已經廣泛應用在太陽能電池的商業市場上，但因為其普遍成本偏高、且對於其製程的要求也非常嚴格，因此這類型為主的太陽能電池尚未能作為供應能源的取代。隨著第三代太陽能電池的發展，除了以染料分子之外，應用量子點半導體材料作為吸光敏化劑也成了目前最具潛力吸光材料。
    於本文的研究中，主要在於探討和討論量子點相關光電轉換元件，如量子點敏化太陽能電池、膠體量子點薄膜太陽能電池以及以量子點應用於電化學分解水產氫等元件。而選擇量子點來作為吸光敏化劑的原因在於，其本身的電性會隨著粒徑大小、形狀、組成及其他元素參雜而有所改變，而藉此便可選擇出最適合電性之量子點來應用於太陽能電池，且多重激子產生的特性使其可突破傳統理論效率，並有機會能達到高效能之轉化效率。而太陽能電池或是光電極分解水產氫的結構中皆包含了金屬氧化物半導體(電子傳輸)、量子點敏化劑、電解質(電洞傳輸)以及對電極，每一部分皆會影響其最後效率的表現，而在各個文獻中，藉由探討各種具有潛力的量子點材料，並找出最適合的結構來幫助電子傳輸並避免電子電洞再結合，在量子點太陽能電池的相關文獻中已有可達到8.5%效率的表現，也漸漸接近染料敏化太陽能電池的效率(12%)。
    最後，我們採用了硫/硒化鎘複合量子點來作為敏化劑並組成太陽能電池。並從實驗中去探討多硫電解質的濃度和添加物以及藉由鎘離子的表面處理，來達到高效率的量子點敏化太陽能電池。而在最適化之後對於液態太陽能電池其效率可達到5.34%，然而固態太陽能電池目前只達到0.4%。

    SUMMARY
    Quantum dot (QD) sensitized photoelectrodes have attracted great interest in the past few years. They are greatly applied not only in quantum dot sensitized solar cells but also in colloidal quantum dot thin film solar cells and photoelectrochemical (PEC) cells for water splitting. The properties such as multiple exciton generation (MEG), hot electron injection and tunable band gap are gaining momentum to overcome the efficiency limitations. Although a starting point of relatively low performing optoelectronic device, the breakthrough of QDs-based device has been witnessed for boosting conversion efficiency in just a few years. In this review, we highlight the recent evolvements achieved in surmounting the obstacles such as lower open circuit voltage (Voc) or charge recombination. With the specific investigation and innovation for main structures constructing the QDs-based devices, we anticipate the future direction with an aim to highly light to electric power conversion efficiency. And finally, we used the Cd2+ seed pre-treatment to enhance the loading of CdSxSe1-x to increase the overall power conversion efficiency to 5.3%.

    Key words: review of QD-based optoelectronic devices, CdSxSe1-x QDs, sensitized solar cell

    INTRODUCTION

    In this brief review and article, we aim to focus on the utilization of QD-photoelectrodes in PV and PEC devices, QDSSCs, CQDs thin film solar cells and water splitting. The basic opto-electronic characteristics and mechanisms of QDs-based devices will be discussed at first. After the explicit definition and consideration, we will be absorbed in the progress on the study of these interesting and promising photoelectrodes, further to more discussion
    about each part of the device structures. The literature for optimizing and engineering for QDs-based device is quite large, so we do not to cover the researches exhaustively. Finally, the pivotal path to improve the performance of QDs-based devices and the stability of QDs itself will be discussed in detail.

    PRINCIPLES AND MECHANISMS

    In this section, we focus on the working principle for PV and PEC devices, including QDSSCs, CQDSCs and QDs-based photoelectrode for PEC water splitting. With the promisingly optoelectronic properties in QD such as ionization impact, Auger recombination and mini-band transfer, QD materials show the potential to apply in the sensitizer in many QDs-based devices.

    PROGRESS OF THE COMPONENT STRUCTURES IN QDS-BASED DEVICES

    Much attention has been drawn to the development for the QDs-based PV or PEC devices. The intensive researches are concentrated on each formation of the optoelectronic devices to improve the sun-light conversion efficiency, lying primarily to the wide band gap metal oxides, QDs sensitizers, electrolytes and counter electrodes. The following investigation mainly about QDSSCs, CQDSCs and QDs-based water splitting highlights the composed structure with an aim toward highly efficient sunlight energy conversion.

    At the heart of the photoelectrode is always a nanocrystalline metal oxide film. It plays a significant role to load QDs sensitizers and conduct electrons. As a wide band gap semiconductor for the QDs scaffold, the large surface area is available for QDs adsorption. Therefore, nanosized porous structure has been commonly used in QDs-based PV or PEC devices, primarily consisting of TiO2 or ZnO. Nanoparticle films offer very high surface area to extend the amount of sensitizer loading. However, unlike dye adsorption in DSSCs, larger QDs have some difficulty entering the inner pores the film. The direct exposure of the oxide film in electrolyte leads to a series degree of interfacial recombination, deteriorating the Voc. Thus, selecting a proper candidate to adsorb QDs is an important issue.

    QDs-Sensitizer

    There are many kinds of QDs semiconductors applying to the sensitizers on the wide band gap metal oxides. They play important roles for light absorption, charge excitation and separation. QDs semiconductors especially such as CdS, CdSe, PbS, CuInS2, Sb2S3 and their alloys with other elements have been commonly investigated for pursuit of higher power conversion efficiency. Besides the stability when immersing in electrolyte, QDs sensitizers should completely cover on all the surface of the metal oxide avoiding direct contact between metal oxide and electrolyte. Thus, the most used methods are based on increasing the coverage of QDs. All methods are mainly classified into in-situ and ex-situ ones from QDs synthesis and their incorporation into the photoactive electrode. Recently, some improvements for the doping QDs, surface treatment and combination of organic dye absorbers have become the latest trend in QD-based optoelectronic devices.

    Electrolyte

    In QDSSCs, the electrolyte plays a pivotal role in the rejuvenation of QDs materials by capturing the photo-generated holes. The rapid electron-transfer from electrolyte to the oxidized QDs sensitizer must be indispensable in the whole charge transfer process while having excellent long-term stability. Further, the important process includes the self-redox in the couple to deliver the hole to counter electrode. What must be significantly addressed is the Voc influenced by the potential of the redox couple. This value is corresponded to the difference between the quasi-Fermi level of metal oxide and the redox potential of the electrolyte.

    Counter Electrode

    In addition to the investigation of photoanodes, the performance of the QDSSCs is determined by the electrocatalytic properties and tolerance of the CEs toward the redox couples. The CE is responsible for catalysis and reduction of the oxidized redox species with the electrons transporting from the external circuit. For the polysulfide used widely in liquid state QDSSCs, besides discharging the electrons quickly, the CE must sustain in the sulfur/sulfide aqueous surrounding for a long time in pursuit of the long-term stability. Finally, the amount of the CE catalytic activity and surface area is also a crucial parameter that affects the overall performance.

    STRATEGIES TO OPTIMIZE THE QD-BASED DEVICES

    Although a volume of work has been conducted on the analysis of each element assembling QDs-based PV or PEC cells to enhance the sun-light conversion efficiency, there is still an obvious gap between QDSSCs and DSSCs. It is imperative that the efficiency of QDSSCs should be ~10% to make them competitive. In recent years, the efficiency has been gradually achieved to 5~7% in average for high efficiency device no matter for QDSSCs or for CQDs thin film solar cells. Accordingly, strategies for improve the performance are discussed as follow to bring the great potential of fabricating a highly efficient QD-based devices.

    RESULT AND DISCUSSION

    For the result and discussion, we apply the Cd2+ seed pre-treatment before SILAR process. And we observed that the cells with Cd2+ pre-treatment showed higher photocurrent, which leads the improved PCE of 5.3%. And the electrolyte condition was based on the based one with the larger alkali compound to increase the conductivity. However, the performance in solid state with CdSxSe1-x QDSSC was not as well as expected, just only 0.4%.

    CONCLUSION

    QDs-based photo-electrodes have emerged as the representative not only for the third generation PV devices but also for the water splitting in PEC systems. Owing to the optoelectronic properties such as multiple exciton generation (MEG), size-dependent band gap and high extinction coefficient, QDs have been the appropriate substitution for dye molecules as the photo-induced sensitizer. The QDSSCs are composed of electron acceptor, QD-sensitizer and hole acceptor which approaches to the assembly of p-i-n junction. With optimization for each element, the overall conversion efficiency has closed to 7% and have the potential to achieve 10%.

    中文摘要....................................................I Extended Abstract........................................III 誌謝.....................................................VII Catalogue.................................................IX Table Catalogue..........................................XII Figure Catalogue........................................XIII Acronyms...............................................XVIII Chapter 1 Introduction.....................................1 Chapter 2 Principles and Mechanisms for QDs-Based Devices..7 2-1 Performance Parameters for PV Solar Cell.......7 2-2 Performance Parameters for PEC Water Splitting.....................................11 2-3 QDs as Sensitizers............................16 2-4 Working Mechanisms of QDs-Based Photoelectrodes in PV and PEC Devices.........................19 2-4.1 QD Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSCs)..19 2-4.2 Colloidal Quantum Dots (CQDs) Thin Film Solar Cells....................23 2-4.3 QDs-Photoelectrodes Water Splitting for Hydrogen Generation.............26 Chapter 3 Process of Component Structures in QDs-Based Devices...................................................29 3-1 Metal Oxide for Wide Band Gap Semiconductors (Electron Acceptors)..........................29 3-1.1 Titanium Oxide (TiO2)...............30 3-1.2 Zinc Oxide (ZnO)....................35 3-1.3 Other Oxides........................39 3-1.4 Doping for Metal Oxides.............40 3-2 QDs-Sensitizers...............................43 3-2.1 Preparation and Deposition Methods for QDs.............................56 3-2.2 Types of QDs-Materials..............70 3-2.3 Some Improvements for QDs...........82 3-3 Redox Electrolytes............................85 3-4 Counter Electrodes (CEs)......................91 Chapter 4 Strategies to Optimize the QDs-Based Devices....96 4-1 Highly-Loading Coverage of QDs on Electron Conductor (Metal Oxide........................96 4-2 QDs Material Selection and Engineering........99 4-3 Enhanced Depletion Region for Efficient Charge Separation...................................101 4-4 Stable Electrolyte with Lower Redox Potential....................................102 4-5 Highly-Catalytic Counter Electrode...........103 Chapter 5 Instruments and Experimental Methods...........104 5-1 Experimental Chemicals.......................104 5-2 Experimental Instruments.....................106 5-3 Experimental Methods for QDSSCs Fabrication..107 5-3.1 Preparation of TiO2 Nano-Particle Film...............................107 5-3.2 Preparation of TiO2/CdSxSe1-x Photoanode.........................107 5-3.3 Preparation of PbS Counter Electrode..........................108 5-3.4 Assembly of Liquid State CdSxSe1-x QDSSCs.............................109 5-3.5 Assembly of Solid State CdSxSe1-x QDSSCs.............................109 Chapter 6 Results and Discussion.........................112 6-1 The Influence of Additive in Polysulfide Electrolyte..................................112 6-1.1 Introduction.......................112 6-1.2 Photovolaic Performance for the Comparison.........................113 6-2 The Effect of Cd2+ Pre-treatment before SILAR........................................115 6-2.1 Introduction.......................115 6-2.2 Photovolaic Performance for the Comparison with Cd2+ Pre-treatment.116 6-3 Solid State CdSxSe1-x-Based QDSSCs...........118 6-3.1 Introduction.......................118 6-3.2 Photovolaic Performance for the Solid State QDSSCs.......................119 Chapter 7 Conclusion and Outlook.........................121 Chapter 8 Reference......................................123 Table Catalogue Table 3-1 Performance summary of QDSSCs reported in recent literature......................................44 Table 3-2 Performance summary of CQDs thin film solar cells reported in recent literature...................53 Table 3-3 Performance summary of QDs-based PEC cells for water spitting reported in recent literature....54 Table 6-1 Photovoltaic parameters for different assembly of polysulfide electrolyte based on CdSxSe1-x/ZnS liquid QDSSCs..................................114 Table 6-2 Photovoltaic parameters for CdSxSe1-x/ZnS liquid QDSSCs with and without the Cd2+ pre-treatment.117 Table 6-3 Photovoltaic parameters for CdSxSe1-x/ZnS solid state QDSSCs...................................120 Figure Catalogue Fig. 2-1 I-V curves in the fourth of a photovoltaic solar cell depicted under illumination and dark conditions........................................9 Fig. 2-2 Principles of water splitting using semiconductor photocatalysts or photoelectrodes................14 Fig. 2-3 Dependence of theoretical STH and solar photocurrent density of photoelectrodes on their bandgap absorption edge..........................15 Fig. 2-4 Optoelectronic properties for QDs material from (a) -(d).............................................18 Fig. 2-5 Work mechanism of quantum dot sensitized solar cell with mesoporous metal oxide under sunlight illumination.....................................22 Fig. 2-6 Structures and mechanisms for (a) Schottky solar cells and (b) depleted heterojunction solar cells .................................................25 Fig. 2-7 Work mechanism of water splitting PEC cells with QDs-based photoelectrodes........................28 Fig. 3-1 The evolution of the sensitized solar cell.......33 Fig. 3-2 Photoinduced charge separation and transport in (a) TiO2 particulate film and (b) TiO2 nanotube array...........................................34 Fig. 3-3 (a)Top view SEM image of surface textured-titaium inversed opal. (b) the surface of io-TiO2 (scale bar: 5 μm........................................34 Fig. 3-4 (a) Schematic and (b) energy band diagram of planar DH solar ce (c) schematic and (d) energy band diagram an ordered bulk heterojunction (BHJ) architecture by the solution processed ZnO nanowires.......................................38 Fig. 3-5 Schematic electronic band structure of CdSe nanocrystalline TiO2/N, associated with normal TiO2 and a N dopant state........................42 Fig. 3-6 The influence with the N-doped metal oxide for reduction of the surface state induced at the interface (a)with the N-doping (b)without any treatment........................................42 Fig. 3-7 The illumination of the SILAR deposition of QDs with PbS to be example...........................60 Fig. 3-8 Schematic diagrams of (a) the surface charge of TiO2 as a function of solution pH and (b) the deposition processes of CdS QDs on TiO2 films using Cd(NO3)2 and Cd(Ac)2 methanol solutions as cationic precursors. And (c)it shows fast deposition during the SILAR process and have more outstanding results with Cd(Ac)2.................61 Fig. 3-9 The existing problem caused by the in-situ method with SILAR for CdS or CBD for CdSe...............61 Fig. 3-10 (a) Linking CdSe QDs to TiO2 particle with bifunctional surface modifier like MPA, TGA; (b) Light harvesting assembly composed of TiO2 film functionalized with CdSe QDs on optically transparent electrode...........................64 Fig. 3-11 Comparison of linker exchange of larger molecule like OA and TOPO to smaller one like MPA........65 Fig. 3-12 (a) Schematic illustration of proposed band bending in ZnO/PbS-TBAI (left) and ZnO/PbS- TBAI/PbS-EDT (right) devices at short-circuit conditions. (b) The much higher efficiency conducted with the combination of ZnO/PbS- TBAI/PbS-EDT...................................69 Fig. 3-13 (a) Various heterostructure band alignments. (b) The energy band alignments of the assembly with CdS, CdSe and CdS/CdSe. (c) Inverted type I band structure from CdS/CdSe core/shell structure....74 Fig. 3-14 (a) Cartoon of a core/shell CdTe/CdSe QD indicating the relative position of the bands. (b) The I-V curve with much higher efficiency of 6.76% for this CdTe/CdSe core/shell structure...75 Fig. 3-15 (a) Structure and (b) energy level alignment for CdS/PbS depleted heterojunction solar cells. Also the promising combination of Bi2S3/PbS has represented in the depleted heterojunction solar cell, which shows their (c) structure and (d) energy level alignment..........................79 Fig. 3-16 (a) Schematic diagram illustrating the electron transfer from doped CdS into TiO2 nanoparticles with the additional energy state by d-d transition from Mn-doping trap (b) I-V curve indicating the substantially improvement with the Mn-doping with Mn-CdS alone or Mn-CdS/CdSe......84 Fig. 3-17 A comparison of the cation effect with (a) the smaller cation like Li+ and (b) the larger one like Cs+ as the additive in the electrolyte.....90 Fig. 3-18 The energy band alignment for TiO2/Sb2S3 and many kinds of organic hole transport materials.......90 Fig. 3-19 (a) The depict of the structure for 2-D reduced- graphene counter electrode applied with Cu2S. (b) Illustration showing the much faster catalytic effect with polysulfide with Pt counter electrode.......................................94 Fig. 3-20 Schematic energy band diagram and charge transfer processes in the QDSSC with PbS counter electrode.......................................95 Fig. 4-1 The representation of the novel deposition by painting with the mix of metal oxide and QDs.....98 Fig. 5-1 Illustration of the overall procedures for assembling a CdSxSe1-x QDSSCs with working electrode and counter electrode.................111 Fig. 5-2 Schematic representation of a typical assembly of a solid-state dye-sensitized solar cell.........111 Fig. 6-1 I-V curves for the comparison of different assembly of polysulfide electrolyte based on CdSxSe1-x/ZnS liquid QDSSCs.....................114 Fig. 6-2 UV-vis spectrum for the comparison of the CdSxSe1-x/ZnS photoelectrode with and without the Cd2+ treatment..................................116 Fig. 6-3 I-V curves for the comparison CdSxSe1-x/ZnS liquid QDSSCs with and without the Cd2+ pre-treatment and also for different concentrations...............117 Fig. 6-4 I-V curves for the CdSxSe1-x/ZnS solid state ETA solar cell......................................120

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    248 T. Zewdu, J. N. Clifford and E. Palomares, “Synergistic Effect of ZnS Outer Layers and Electrolyte Methanol Content on Efficiency in TiO2/CdS/CdSe Sensitized Solar Cells”, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 14, 13076–13080, 2012.
    249 J. G. Radich, N.R. Peeples, P. K. Santra and P. V. Kamat, “Charge Transfer Mediation Through CuxS. The Hole Story of CdSe in Polysulfide”, J. Phys. Chem. C, DOI: 10.1021/jp4113365, 2014.
    250 M. S. de la Fuente, R. S. Sánchez, V. González-Pedro, P. P. Boix, S. G. Mhaisalkar, M. E. Rincón, J. Bisquert and I. Mora-Seró, “Effect of Organic and Inorganic Passivation in Quantum-Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells”, J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 4(9), 1519–1525, 2013.
    251 P. K. Santra and P. V. Kamat, “Mn-Doped Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells-A Strategy to Boost Efficiency over 5%”, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 134, 2508, 2012.
    252 J. Luo, H. Wei, Q. Huang, X. Hu, H. Zhao, R. Yu, D. Li, Y. Luo and Q. Meng, “Highly Efficient Core Shell CuInS2-Mn Doped CdS Quantum Dots Sensitized Solar Cells”, Chem. Commun., 49, 3881–3883, 2013.
    253 Z. B. Huang, X. P. Zou and H. Q. Zhou, “A Strategy to Achieve Superior Photocurrent by Cu-doped Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cell”, Mater. Lett., 95, 139–141, 2013.
    254 M. Shalom, J. Albero, Z. Tachan, E. Martínez-Ferrero, A. Zaban and E. Palomares, “Quantum Dot−Dye Bilayer-Sensitized Solar Cells-Breaking the Limits Imposed by the Low Absorbance of Dye Monolayers”, J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 1, 1134, 2010.
    255 H. Choi, R. Nicolaescu, S. Paek, J. Ko and P. V. Kamat, “Supersensitization of CdS Quantum Dots with a Near-Infrared Organic Dye-Toward the Design of Panchromatic Hybrid-Sensitized Solar Cells”, ACS Nano, 5, 9238, 2011.
    256 H. Choi, P. K. Santra and P. V. Kamat, “Synchronized Energy and Electron Transfer Processes in Covalently Linked CdSe–Squaraine Dye–TiO2 Light Harvesting Assembly”, ACS Nano, 6, 5718–5726, 2012.
    257 Z. Yang, C. Y. Chen, P. Roy and H. T. Chang, “Quantum Dot-sensitized Solar Cells Incorporating Nanomaterials”, Chem. Commun., 47, 9561–9571, 2011.
    258 V. Chakrapani, D. Baker and P. V. Kamat, “Understanding the Role of the Sulfide Redox Couple S2--Sn2- in Quantum Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells”, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 133, 9607–9615, 2011.
    259 J.-H. Bang and P. V. Kamat, “A Tale of Two Semiconductor Nanocrystals- CdSe and CdTe”, ACS Nano, 3, 1467–1476, 2009.
    260 H. Zhu, N, Song and T. Lian, “Charging of Quantum Dots by Sulfide Redox Electrolytes Reduces Electron Injection Efficiency in Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells”, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 135, 11461–11464, 2014.
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    267 H. J. Lee, P. Chen, S.-J. Moon, F. Sauvage, K. Sivula, T. Bessho, D. R. Gamelin, P. Comte, S. M. Zakeeruddin, S. I. Seok, M. Grätzel and M. K. Nazeeruddin, “Regenerative PbS and CdS Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells with a Cobalt Complex as Hole Mediator”, Langmuir, 25, 7602, 2009.
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    269 H. Kim, H. Jeong, T. K. An, C. E. Park and K. Yong, “Hybrid-Type Quantum-Dot Cosensitized ZnO Nanowire Solar Cell with Enhanced Visible-Light Harvesting”, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 5, 268–275, 2013.
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    272 K. Zhao, H. Yu, H. Zhang and X. Zhong, “Electroplating Cuprous Sulfide Counter Electrode for High-Efficiency Long-Term Stability Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells”, J. Phys. Chem. C., 118, 5683-5690, 2014.
    273 M. Shalom, I. Hod, Z. Tachan, S. Buhbut, S. Tirosh and A. Zaban, “Quantum Dot Based Anode and Cathode for High Voltage Tandem Photo-electrochemical Solar Cell”, Energy Environ. Sci., 4, 1874–1878, 2011.
    274 Y. Yang, L. Zhu, H. Sun, X. Huang, Y. Luo, D. Li and Q. Meng, “Composite Counter Electrode Based on Nanoparticulate PbS and Carbon Black: Towards Quantum Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells with Both High Efficiency and stability”, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 4, 6162–6168, 2012.
    275 P. Parand, M. Samadpour, A. Esfandiar and A. I. Zad, “Graphene-PbS as a Novel Counter Electrode for Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells”, ACS Photonics, 1, 323-330, 2014.
    276 A. K. Geim and K. S. Novoselov, “The Rise of Graphene”, Nat. Mater., 6, 183, 2007.
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    283 M. P. Genovese, I. V. Lightcap and P. V. Kamat, “Sun-Believable Solar Paint. A Transformative One-Step Approach for Designing Nanocrystalline Solar Cells”, ACS Nano, 6, 865–872, 2012.
    284 X. Z. Lan, J. Bai, S. Masala, S. M. Thon, Y. Ren, I. J. Kramer, S. Hoogland, A. Simchi, G. I. Koleilat, D. Paz-Soldan, Z. J. Ning, A. J. Labelle, J. Y. Kim, G. Jabbour and E. H. Sargent, “Self-Assembled, Nanowire Network Electrodes for Depleted Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells”, Adv. Mater., 25, 1769–1773, 2013.
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