本研究以美國上市公司為研究對象，探討企業從事國際策略聯盟時，以往策略聯盟經驗是否有助於企業未來聯盟績效的提升。以往探討國際策略聯盟經驗價值之文獻均以合資為探討對象，尚無以非股權型態之策略聯盟為探討對象。鑑於合資型態策略聯盟之經驗價值並無定論，探討非股權型態策略聯盟之經驗價值當可對此議題有更深入的理解。本研究同時以短期股價宣告效果、長期實際營運績效，以及長期股票持有報酬率為績效指標，前兩者的一致代表策略聯盟是著眼於長期利益而非短期效益，而長期股票持有報酬率如為異常，代表該聯盟利益並無法在短期宣告期間內完全反應。本研究實證結果顯示，當企業從事國際策略聯盟時，普遍能受惠於以往的策略聯盟經驗，包括一般性、特定文化、特定國家以及特定型態。此外，聯盟的複雜度也會影響經驗之價值，涉及技術交流與移轉之聯盟經驗較無涉及技術交流之聯盟經驗更為有價值，而聯盟伙伴來自開發中國家的經驗，也較聯盟伙伴來自已開發國家之經驗更為有價值。在績效指標上，短期宣告效果與長期營運績效兩者是一致的，而長期股票持有報酬率則無顯著反應。

This study investigates whether firms learn to manage non-equity involved international strategic alliances (ISAs) as experience accumulates. Previous studies on the issue of inter-firm experiential learning have focused mostly on joint ventures. The question of whether and how firms learn from their alliance experiences in the domain of international, non-equity involved strategic alliances has never been investigated. Given the mixed evidence of experience effect on joint ventures, investigating the experience issue against non-equity alliances will yield a new insight on this topic. Specifically, our study simultaneously adopts short-run stock market reaction, long-run operating performance, and long-run buy-and-hold returns as performance measures to assess ISA value creation. Consistency among the three measures indicates that short-run stock price performance is in accordance with the long-run market’s expectations. Our findings show that on the whole, firms learn from the general form of ISA experiences. They also benefit from experiences specific to the partner’s sociocultural group, country, and alliance activity type. Moreover, the experience effect is greatly moderated by firms’ intellectual capital in that firms with abundant intellectual capital are more capable of internalizing previous experiences to benefit successive ISAs. Finally, experiences under great uncertainty, in terms of technical form alliances, are found to be more imperative than non-technical form alliances. While the performance measures of short-run stock market reaction and long-run operating performance demonstrate consistent findings, another performance measure, long-run buy-and-hold returns, however, fails to uncover similar evidence. This result verifies that the market’s expectations of ISA benefits are orientated to long run gains instead of limited to immediate cash flow changes. Finally, the stock market responds to ISA announcements immediately after the news is released, and there is neither significant underreaction nor overreaction to ISA announcements in the long run.

Abeysekera, I. Intellectual accounting scorecard—measuring and reporting intellectual capital. Journal of American Academy of Business 3:422–7. 2003.
Adler, N. J. International dimensions of organizational behavior. Boston, MA: Kent. 1986.
------ and J. L. Graham, Cross-cultural interaction: The international comparison fallacy? Journal of International Business Studies, Fall: 515-37. 1989.
Agodo, O. The Determinants of U.S. Private Manufacturing Investments in Africa. Journal of International Business Studies 9: 95-107. 1978.
Allen, J. and G. Philips, Corporate Equity Ownership, Strategic Alliances, and Product Market Relationships. Journal of Finance LV: 2791-2815. 2000.
Alliance Analyst. Measuring alliance performance. August 1998. NewCap Communications: Philadelphia, PA. 1998.
Anand, B. and T. Khanna, Do Firms Learn to Create Value? The case of alliances. Strategic Management Journal 21(3): 295-316. 2000.
Argote, L. Organizational Learning: Creating, retaining and transferring knowledge. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, MA. 1999.
Arino, A. and J. de la Torre, Learning from failure: towards an evolutionary model of collaborative ventures. Organization Science 9, 3: 306–325. 1998.
Barkema, H., O. Shenkar, F. Vermeulen and J. Bell, Working abroad, working with others: How firms learn to operate international joint ventures. Academy of Management Journal 4 (2): 426-442. 1997.
Baker J, and T. Bresnehan, The gains from merger and collusion in product-differentiated industries. Journal of Industrial Economics 33: 427– 433. 1985.
Baker, G., R. Gibbons and K. Murphy, Implicit contracts and the theory of the firm. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 61-77. 1997,
Barber, B.M. and J.D. Lyon, Detecting abnormal operating performance: the empirical power and speci.cation of test-statistics. Journal of Financial Economics 41, 359–399. 1996.
Barber, B.M., and J.D. Lyon, Detecting long-run abnormal stock returns: the empirical power and specification of test statistics. Journal of Financial Economics 43, 341–372. 1997.
Barclay, M.J. and C.W. Smith, Jr. The Maturity Structure of Corporate Debt. Journal of Finance 50 (2): 609-631. 1995.
Barkema, H.G., J.H.J. Bell, and J.M. Pennings, Foreign entry, cultural barriers, and learning. Strategic Management Journal 17(2): 151–166. 1996.
Barney, J. B. Introduction to special issue on the resource based view of the firm, Journal of management 17: 97-99. 1991.
Beamish, P. W. Fall The Characteristics of Joint Ventures in Developed and Developing Countries. Columbia Journal of World Business 20:13-19. 1985.
Benkard, L. Learning and forgetting: The dynamics of aircraft production. Yale University, Department of Economics Working Paper, New Haven, CT. 1998.
Black, J. S. Japanese/American negotiation: The Japanese perspective. Business and Economic Review 6: 27-30. 1987.
Black, J. S. and M. Mendenhall, Cross-Cultural Training Effectiveness: A Review and A Theory. Academy of Management 15: 113-136. 1990.
Brav, A., C. Geczy, and P.A. Gompers, Is the abnormal return following equity issuances anomalous? Journal of Financial Economics 56, 209. 2000.
Brown, J. S. and P. Duguid, Organizing knowledge. California Management Review, 40 (3): 90-111. 1998.
Brown, S.J. and J.B. Warner, Using Daily Stock Returns: The case of event studies. Journal of Financial Economics 14(1): 3-31. 1985.
Butler, R. Time in organizations: its experience, explanations and effects. Organization Studies 16(6): 925-950. 1995.
Burt R.S. Structure holes: the social structure of competition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1992.
Chan, S., J. Kensinger, A. Keown and M. Martin, Do Strategic Alliances Create Value? Journal of Financial Economics 46, 199-222. 1997.
Chang, S. J. and P. M. Rosenzweig, The Choice of Entry Mode in Sequential Foreign Direct Investment. Strategic Management Journal 22: 747-776. 2001.
Chen, H, M. Y. Hu, and J. C. P. Shieh, The Wealth Effect of International Joint Ventures: the Case of U.S. Investment in China. Financial Management 20: 31– 41. 1991.
Chen, S. and K. Ho, Market Response to Product-Strategy and Capital-Expenditure Announcements in Singapore: Investment Opportunities and Free Cash Flow. Financial Management 26(3): 82-88. 1997.
Chen, S., K. Ho, C. Lee, and G. Yeo, Investment Opportunities, Free Cash Flow and Market Reaction to International Joint Ventures. Journal of Banking and Finance 24, 1747-1765. 2000.
Chi, T., Trading in strategic resources: Necessary conditions, transaction cost problems, and choice of exchange structure. Strategic Management Journal 15: 271-290. 1994.
Chung, K.H. and S.W. Pruitt, Simple approximation of Tobin’s q. Financial Management 23: 70-74. 1994.
Clarke, J., C. Dunbar, and K. Kahle, The long-run performance of secondary equity issues: A test of the window of opportunity hypothesis? Journal of Business 77(3):575-603. 2004.
Clayton, M.J. and Y. Qian, Wealth Gains from Tracking Stocks: Long-Run Performance and Ex-Date Returns Financial Management 33 (3): 83-106. 2004.
Cohen, W. M. and D. A. Levinthal, Absorptive capacity: a new perspective on learning and innovation. Administrative Science Quartely 35: 128-152. 1990.
Coleman J.S. Social capital in the creation of human capital. The American Journal of Sociology 94: 95–120. 1988.
Cusatis, P., J. Miles, and J. Woolridge, Restructuring through spin-offs: The stock market evidence. Journal of Financial Economics 33 (June): 293-311. 1993.
Dacin, M.T., M.A. Hitt and E. Levitas, Selecting partners for successful international alliances: Examination of U.S. and Korean firms. Journal of World Business 32(1):3-16. 1997.
Dann, L.Y., R.W. Masulis, and D. Mayers, Repurchase Tender Offers and Earnings Information. Journal of Accounting & Economics 14(3): 217-251. 1991.
DeGeorge, F. and R. Zeckhauser, The reverse LBO decision and firm performance: Theory and evidence. The Journal of Finance 48 (4): 1323-1348. 1993.
Doukas, J. A. and L. Lang, Foreign direct investment, diversification and firm performance. Journal of International Business Studies 34 (2): 153-172. 2003.
Doz, Y. and G. Hamel, Alliance Advantage. Harvard Business School Press: Boston, MA. 1998.
Crutchley, C., E. Guo, and R. Hansen, Stockholder Benefits from Japanese-U.S. Joint Ventures. Financial Management 20: 22-30. 1991.
Kent, D. and S. Titman, Market reactions to tangible and intangible information, Working paper, Northwestern University. 2001.
Das, S., P. Sen, and S. Sengupta, Impact of Strategic Alliances on Firm Valuation, Academy of Management Journal 41: 27-41. 1998.
Das, T. K. and B. S. Teng, A resource-based theory of strategic alliances. Journal of Management 26: 31–61. 2000.
---, The dynamics of alliance conditions in the alliance development process. Journal of Management Studies 39: 725-46. 2002.
De la Torre, J. Foreign Investment and economic development: conflict and negotiation. Journal of International Business Studies 14: 9-30. 1981.
Denis, D. J. and D. K. Denis, Managerial discretion, organization structure, and corporate performance: A study of leveraged recapitalizations. Journal of Accounting and Economics 16, 209-236. 1993.
Delios, A. and W. J. Henisz, Political hazards, experience, and sequential entry strategies: the international expansion of Japanese firms, 1980-1998, Strategic Management Journal 24: 1153-1164. 2003.
Dyer J.H. Specialized supplier networks as a source of competitive advantage: evidence from the auto industry. Strategic Management Journal 7:271–91. 1996.
Dzinkowski R. The measurement and management of intellectual capital. Management Accounting February: 32-36. 2000.
Eberhart, A. and A. Siddique, The long-term performance of corporate bonds (and stocks) following seasoned equity offerings. Review of Financial Studies 15, 1385–1406. 2002.
Eberhart A.C., W.F. Maxwell and A.R. Siddique, An Examination of Long-Term Abnormal Stock Returns and Operating Performance Following R&D Increases. Journal of Finance 59(2): 623-650. 2004.
Edvinsson, L. and M. Malone, Intellectual capital: realizing your company’s true value by finding its manpower. Harper Collins: New York, 1997.
Elsaid, H. H. and M. S. El-Hennawi, Foreign investment in LDCs. California Management Review 24: 85-91. 1982.
Emden, Z., A. Yaprak and S.T. Cavusgil, Learning from experience in international alliances: antecedents and firm performance implications. Journal of Business Research 58 (7): 883-892. 2005.
Fama E.F. Efficient Capital Markets: A Review of Theory and Empirical Work. Journal of Finance 25: 383-417. 1970.
Fama, E. F. and K. French, Size and book-to-market factors in earnings and returns, Journal of Finance 50: 131-155. 1995.
Fama, E.F., and K.R. French, Forecasting profitability and earnings, Journal of Business 73: 161–175. 2000.
Fiol, C. M. and M. A. Lyles, Organizational learning, Academy of Management Review 10: 803-813. 1985.
Galbraith, J. Organizational Design, Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. 1977.
Goldman A. Transfer of a Retailing Technology into the Less Developed Countries : The Supermarket case. Journal of Retailing 57(2): 5-27. 1981.
Grant R.M. and C. Baden-Fuller, A knowledge-based theory of inter-firm collaboration. Academy of Management Journal; Briarcliff Manor: 17-21. 1995.
Grullon, G., and R. Michaely, The information content of share repurchase programs. Journal of Finance 59, 651-680. 2004.
Gulati, R., T. Khanna and N. Nohria, Unilateral commitments and the importance of process in alliances. Sloan Management Review 35(3): 61–69. 1994.
Gulati, R., Does Familiarity Breed Trust? The Implications of Repeated Ties for Contractual Choices in Alliances. Academy of Management Journal 38, 85-112. 1995.
Gupta, A. and L. Misra, The Value of Experiential Learning by Organizations: Evidence from International Joint Ventures. The Journal of Financial Research 23 (1): 77-102. 2000.
Hamel, G., Y. Doz,, and C.K. Prahalad, Collaborate with your Competitors and Win, Harvard Business Review 67: 133-139. 1989.
-------, G., Competition for competence and inter-partner learning within international strategic alliances. Strategic Management Journal 12:83-104. 1991.
Haunschild, P.R., A. Davis-Blake and M. Fichman, Managerial overcommitment in corporate acquisition process. Organization Science 5: 528–540. 1994.
Harrigan, K. R., Managing for Joint Venture Success, Praeger: New York. 1985.
Harrigan, K. R., Strategic Alliances and Partner Asymmetries. Management International Review 28: 53-72. 1988.
Hayton, J. C. Competing in the new economy: the effect of intellectual capital on corporate entrepreneurship in high-technology new ventures. R & D Management 35(2): 137-155. 2005.
Hearst, E. and M. B. Koresko, Stimulus Generalization and Amount of Prior Training on Variable-interval Reinforcement. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 66: 133-138. 1968.
Hitt, M.A., B. B. Tyler, C. Hardee and D. Park, Understanding strategic intent in the global marketplace. The Academy of Management Executive 9(2):12-19. 1995.
Hitt, M.A., M. T. Dacin and E. Levitas, Partner selection in emerging and developed market contexts: Resource-based and organizational learning perspectives. Academy of Management Journal 43(3):449-467. 2000.
Hermans R, and I. Kauranen, Value creation potential of intellectual capital in biotechnology - empirical evidence from Finland. R & D Management 35 (2): 171-85. 2005.
Herremans I. M. and R.G. Isaac, The intellectual capital realization process (ICRP): an application of the resource-based view of the firm. Journal of Managerial Issues 16(2):217–31. 2004.
Holderness, C.G., R.S. Kroszner, and D.P. Sheehan, Were the good old days that good? changes in managerial stock ownership since the great depression. Journal of Finance 54(2): 435-469. 1999.
Hofstede, G. Culture and Organizations. International Studies of Management & Organization 10: 15-41. 1980.
Huber, G. P. Organizational learning: The contributing processes and the literature. Organization Science 2: 88-115. 1991.
Hussi, T. and G. Ahonen, Managing intangible assets - a question of integration and delicate balance. Journal of Intellectual Capital 3(3): 277-86. 2002.
Hussi T. Reconfiguring knowledge management - combining intellectual capital, intangible assets and knowledge creation. Journal of Knowledge Management 8(2):36-52. 2004.
Ikenberry, D.L. and S. Ramnath, Underreaction to self-selected news events: the case of stock splits. Review of Financial Studies 15: 489–526. 2002.
Inkpen, A. C., Learning through Joint Ventures: A framework of knowledge acquisition. Journal of Management Studies 37: 1019-1043. 2000.
Inkpen, A. and P. Beamish, Knowledge Bargaining Power, and the Instability of International Joint Ventures. Academy of Management Review 22(1): 177-202. 1997.
Jaeger, A. M. and R. N. Kanungo, Management in developing countries. London: Routledge. 1990.
Jarillo, J.C. Entrepreneurship and Growth: The strategic use of external resources. Journal of Business Venturing, 4: 133-147. 1989.
Jensen, M.C. Agency Cost of Free Cash Flow, Corporate Finance, and Takeovers. American Economic Review 76, 2: 323-329. 1986,
Jensen, M. and W. Meckling, Specific and general knowledge, and organizational structure, In L. Werin and H. Wijkander (eds.), Main Currents in Contract Economics. Blackwell, Oxford, 251-274. 1991.
Kaplan, S. The Effects of Management Buyouts on Operating Performance and Value. Journal of Financial Economics 24, 2: 217-254. 1989.
Kale, P. and H. Singh, Alliance Capability and Success. Best Paper Proceedings, Academy of Management Meetings. Chicago, IL. 1999.
Kale, P., H. Singh and H. Perlmutter, Learning and Protection of Proprietary Assets in Strategic Alliances: Building Relational Capital. Strategic Management Journal 21: 217–237. 2000.
Kale, P., J. H. Dyer and H. Singh, Alliance Capability, Stock Response, and Long-Term Alliance Success: The Role of the Alliances Function. Strategic Management Journal 23: 747-767. 2002.
Kranton R. The Formation of Cooperative Relationships. Journal of Law, Economics and Organization 12: 214-233. 1996.
Kamin, L. J. Predictability, surprise, attention, and condictioning, ln Byron A. Campbell and Russell M. Church eds: 279-296. 1969.
Khanna, T., R. Gulati, and N. Nohria, The dynamics of learning alliances: competition, cooperation, and relative scope. Strategic Management Journal 19: 193-210. 1998.
Kluckhohn, C. and A. L. Kroeberg, Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions, Vintage Books, New York, NY. 1952.
Knight, D.J. Performance measures for increasing intellectual capital, Strategy & Leadership 27 (2), 22-27. 1999.
Kogut, B. Joint Ventures: Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives. Strategic Management Journal 9(4): 319-332. 1988.
Kogut, B. and U. Zander, Knowledge of the firm, combinative capabilities, and the replication of technology. Organization Science 3(3) 383-397. 1992.
Kotabe, M. and K.S. Swan, The role of strategic alliances in high-technology new product development. Strategic Management Journal 16(8): 621-636. 1995.
Kumar R, and K. O. Nti, Differential learning and interaction in alliance dynamics: A process and outcome discrepancy model. Organization Science 9 (3): 356-366. 1998.
Lakonishok, J,, A. Shleifer, and R. Vishny, Contrarian investment, extrapolation, and risk. Journal of Finance 49, 1541–1578. 1994.
Lang, L., R. Stulz, and R. Walkling, Managerial Performance, Tobin's Q, and the Gains from Successful Tender Offers. Journal of Financial Economics 24(1): 137-154. 1989.
Lang, L., R. Stulz, and R. Walkling, A Test of the Free Cash Flow Hypothesis: The Case of Bidder Returns, Journal of Financial Economics 29: 315-335. 1991.
Lee, I. and S. Wyatt, The Effects of International Joint Ventures on Shareholder Wealth. Financial Review 25: 641-649. 1990.
Lie, E. Detecting abnormal operating performance: revisited. Financial Management 30, 77-91. 2001.
Lie, E. Operating performance following open market share repurchase announcements. Journal of Accounting & Economics 39(3): 411-436. 2005.
Lippman, S. A. and R. P. Rumelt, Uncertain Imitability: An Analysis of Interfirm Differences in Efficiency Under Competition. Bell Journal of Economics 13(2): 418-438. 1982.
Lindenberg, E. and S. Ross, Tobin’s q ratio and industrial organization. Journal of Business 54:1–32. 1981.
Lee, C. and P. W. Beamish, The Characteristics and Performance of Korean Joint Ventures in LDCs. Journal of International Business Studies 26(3): 637-655. 1995.
Lev, B. and P. Zarowin, The boundaries of financial reporting and how to extend them. Journal of Accounting Research 37(3): 53–85. 1999.
Levin, M. Technology transfer is organizational development: An investigation into the relationship between technology transfer and organizational change. International Journal of Technology Management 14: 297-308. 1997.
Levitt B. and J. G. March, Organizational learning. Annual Review of Sociology 14: 319–340. 1988.
Loughran, T. and J. Ritter, The new issues puzzle, Journal of Finance 50, 23–51. 1995.
Loughran, T. and J. Ritter, The operating performance of firms conducting seasoned equity offering. Journal of Finance 52, 1959–1970. 1997.
Lorange, P. and J. Roos, Tailor-made strategic processes to meet the firm's portfolio and financial pressures: An empirical study. Scandinavian International Business Review 1: 20-38. 1992.
Luo, Y. D. Guanxi: Principles, Philosophies, and Implications, Human Systems Management 16(1): 43-51. 1997.
Luo, Y. D., Timing of investment and international expansion performance in China. Journal of International Business Studies 29(2): 391-407. 1998.
Luo, Y. D. and M. W. Peng, Learning to compete in a transition economy: experience, environment, and performance. Journal of International Business Studies 30: 269-296. 1999.
Lyles, M.A. and J.E. Salk, Knowledge acquisition from foreign partners in international joint ventures. Journal of International Business Studies 27(5):877–904. 1996.
Madhok, A. Cost, Value and Foreign market Entry Mode: The Transaction and the Firm. Strategic Management Journal 18(1): 39-61. 1997.
March, L. S. Sproull and M. Tamuz, Learning from samples of one or fewer. Organizational Science 2: 1-13. 1991.
McCardle, K. F. Information acquisition and the adoption of new technology. Management Science 31(11):1372–89. 1985.
Mendonca, M. and R. N. Kanungo, Impact of culture on performance management in developing countries. International Journal of Manpower, 17: 65. 1996.
Merchant, H. and D. Schendel, How do international joint ventures create shareholders value? Strategic Management Journal 21: 723-737. 2000.
MERITUM Project. Guidelines for Managing and Reporting on Intangibles (Intellectual Capital Report). Fundación Airtel Móvil, Madrid. 2002.
McConnell, J. and T. Nantell, Corporate Combinations and Common Stock Returns: The Case of Joint Ventures. Journal of Finance 40: 519-536. 1985.
Michaely, R., Thaler, R.H. and Womack, K.L, Price reactions to dividend initiations and omissions: Overreaction or drift? The Journal of Finance 50(2): 573-608. 1995.
Miller, E.M. Risk, uncertainty, and divergence of opinion. Journal of Finance 32: 1151-68. 1977.
Miller, D. and J. Shamsie, The resource-based view of the firm in two enviroments: The Hollywood film studios from 1936 to 1965. Academy of Management Journal 39: 519-543. 1996.
Mody, A. Learning through alliances. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 20: 151-170. 1993.
Montgomery, D. C., E. A. Peck and G. G. Vining, 2001, Introduction to linear regression (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Mouritsen J, H. T. Larsen, and PND. Bukh, Intellectual capital and the ‘capital firm’: narrating, visualizing and numbering for managing knowledge. Accounting, Organizations and Society 26:735–62. 2001.
Mowery, D. C., J. E. Oxley and B. S. Silverman, Strategic alliances and interfirm knowledge transfer. Strategic Management Journal 17:77-80. 1996.
Neter, J., W. Wasserman and M. H. Kutner, Applied Linear Statistical Models: Regression, Analysis of Variance, and Experimental Design, Irwin, Homewood, IL. 1985.
Nonaka, I. A dynamic theory of organization knowledge Organization Science 5: 14-37. 1994.
Nelson, R. R. and S. G. Winter, An evolutionary theory of economic change, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. 1982.
Nonaka I and H Takeuchi, The Knowledge Creating Company. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1995.
Oliver, C., Sustainable Competitive Advantage: Combining Institutional and Resource-based Views. Strategic Management Journal 18(9): 697-713. 1997.
Parkhe, A., Interfirm diversity, organizational learning and longevity in global strategic alliances. Journal of International Business Studies 22: 579-602. 1991.
Peng, M. W. and P. S. Heath, The Growth of the Firm in the Planned Economies in Transition: Institutions, Organizations, and Strategic Choice. Academy of Management Review 21(2): 492-528. 1996.
Pennings, J. M., H. Barkema and S. Douma, Organizational learning and diversification. Academy of Management Journal 37: 608-640. 1994.
Perlmutter, H. V. and D. A. Heenan, Cooperate to Compete Globally. Harvard Business Review 64: 136-142. 1986.
Pisano, G. P. Using equity participation to support exchange: Evidence from the biotechnology industry. Journal of Law, Economics and Organization 5: 109-126. 1989.
Pisano, G. P. Knowledge, integration, and the locus of learning: An empirical analysis of process development. Strategic Management Journal 15 85-100. 1994.
Polanyi, M. Personal Knowledge, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. 1962.
Polanyi, M. The Tacit Dimension, New York: Doubleday & Co. 1966.
Porter, M. and M. Fuller, Coalitions and Global Strategy, Competition in Global Industries. Harvard Business School Boston, MA. 1986.
Powell, W. W., K. W. Koput, and L. Smith-Doerr, Interorganizational collaboration and the locus of innovation: Networks of learning in biotechnology. Administrative Science Quarterly 41: 116-145. 1996.
Ritter, J. R. The Long-Run Performance of Initial Public Offerings. The Journal of Finance 46(1): 3-27. 1991.
Ronen, S. and O. Shenkar, Clustering countries on attitudinal dimensions: a review and synthesis. Academy of Management Review 10: 435-454. 1985.
Roos J, G. Roos, N. C. Dragonetti, and L. Edvinsson, Intellectual Capital: Navigating the New Business Landscape. London; Macmillan Press. 1997.
Sarkar M.B., R. Echambadi, S. T. Cavusgil, and P. Aulakh, The influence of complementarity, compatibility, and relationship capital on alliance performance. Journal of Academic Marketing and Science 29(4): 358–73. 2001.
Shan W, and W. Hamilton, Country-Specific Advantage and International Cooperation. Strategy Management Journal 12: 419-432. 1991.
Shenkar, O. and Y. Zeira, Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity of Chief Executive Officers in International Joint Ventures. Journal of International Business Studies 23: 55-75. 1992.
Simonin, B. The importance of collaborative know-how: an empirical test of the learning organization. Academy of Manangement Journal 40(5): 1150-1174. 1997.
Sinkula, J. M., W. E. Baker and T. Noordewier, A Framework for Market-based Organizational Learning; Linking Values, Knowledge, and Behavior. Journal of Academy and Marketing Science 25(4): 305-318. 1997.
Slater, S. F. and J. C. Narver, Market Orientation and Learning Orientation. Journal of Marketing 59(3): 63-74. 1995.
Spender, J. C. Making knowledge the basis of a dynamic theory of the firm. Strategic Management Journal 17(Winter Special Issue): 45-62. 1996.
Spiess, D.K. and J. Affleck-Graves, Underperformance in long-run stock returns following seasoned equity offerings. Journal of Financial Economics 38(3): 243-267. 1995.
Stewart, T. Intellectual capital: the new wealth of nations. New York: Doubleday Dell Publishing Group. 1997.
Sveiby, K. The New Organizational Wealth: Managing and Measuring Knowledge Based Assets. Berrett Koehler San Francisco, CA. 1997.
Szulanski, G. Appropriability and the Challenge of Scope: BancOne Routinizes Replication. Working paper, Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania. 1999.
Tan, J.J. and R. J. Litschert, Environment-strategy relationship and its performance implications: an empirical study of the Chinese electronics industry', Strategic Management Journal 15: 1-20. 1994.
Teece D. J., G. Pisano, and A. Shuen, Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management. Strategic Management Journal 18(7): 509-533. 1997.
Telser, L. G. A theory of self-enforcing agreements. Journal of Business 53: 27-41. 1980.
Tung, R. Key to Japan's economic strength: Human power. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. 1984.
Tushman, M. L. Special boundary roles in the innovation process. Administrative Science Quarterly 22:587–605. 1997.
Van de Ven and H. Andrew, On the nature, formation and maintenance of relations among organizations. Academy of Management Review 1: 24-36. 1976.
Wang W. Y. and C. Chang, Intellectual capital and performance in causal models. Journal of intellectual capital 6(2): 222-36. 2005.
Wang Y. and S. Nicholas, Knowledge Transfer, Knowledge Replication, and Learning in Non-equity Alliances: Operating Contractual Joint Ventures in China. Management International Review 45(1): 99-118. 2005.
Williamson, O. E. The economic institutions of capitalism. New York: Free Press. 1985.
Williamson, O.E. & W. G. Ouchi, The markets and hierarchies and visible hand perspectives. In A. Van de Ven & W. Joyce (Eds.), Perspectives on organization design and behavior: 347-370. New York: Wiley. 1981.
Yoshino, M. and V. S. Rangan, Strategic Alliances: An Entrepreneurial Approach to Globalization, Boston: Harvard Business School Press. 1995,
Zaheer, S. Overcoming the Liability of Foreignness. Academy of Management Journal 38: 341-363. 1995.
Zagnoli, P. Inter-Firm Agreements as Bilateral Transactions. The Conference on New Technology and New Intermediaries: Competition, Intervention and Cooperation in Europe, America and Asia. Center for European Studies, Stanford University. 1987.
Zollo, M. Knowledge Codification, Process Routinization and the Creation of Organizational Capabilities. Doctoral dissertation. University of Pennsylvania. 1998.
Zollo, M., J. Reuer and H. Singh, Interorganizational routines and performance in strategic alliances, Organization Science, 13(6): 701-713. 2002.