本文研究台灣華語中一種用於表達說話者不滿及負面情緒的構式「X什麼X」的語意與語用特性。在批踢踢語料庫蒐集的三百個語料之中，除了分類被套用進該構式的X，也於每個分類中再分類來探討細部的語意成分。每個X的語意內涵（正向／中立／負向）也一併加以分析。語用上，本文套用了Searle (1976) 的非表意言語行為，來研究說話者透過該構式作出的言語行為。此外，Brown & Levinson (1987) 的禮貌原則，及Culpeper & Tantucci (2021) 的禮貌互惠原則，也被用來分析該構式在禮貌層級上的互動行為。本文旨在回答以下的研究問題：1.構式中的X在不同類別與次類別中，有著什麼樣的語意性質？2.該構式是否有著負面的語意韻律？3a.該構式表達出了哪些言語行為？及3b.該構式如何影響說話者之間的禮貌互動行為。以X的類型來說，動詞佔了超過一半的總數，且符號、詞綴、甚至不同語言的字詞，也能夠被套入該構式，而每個種類的次分類更展示出了不同的語意性質。此外，超過一半被套用進該構式的X，都有著中立的語意內涵，顯示該構式展示出的負面特質，並非受到語意韻律的影響。語用方面，說話者透過該構式展現出表達性(expressive)及指示性(directive)的言語行為。前者展示出了說話者與憤怒相關的情緒，而後者被用來阻止聽話者的特定行為、字詞，與趙（2012）研究出該構式被用來阻止當下可觀察行為的結果相符。禮貌方面，基於不同的言語行為，該構式能夠被歸類於以下三種禮貌策略：負向禮貌、未修飾的禮貌策略、及消極性的禮貌策略。在禮貌互動之上，該構式屬於較不禮貌(somewhat impolite)的禮貌層級，作為把對話拉向越來越不禮貌的一個起始標記。本文分析並探討了「X什麼X」構式中X的規律、語意韻律、言語行為、以及禮貌互動。除了反映出台灣華語的特性，本文的研究結果也期望能夠促進更多中文母語人士，甚至是中文為第二外語人士，來更加理解及應用該構式。

This thesis aims at exploring the semantic and pragmatic properties of the X shenme X construction (e.g. kàn shenme kàn 看什麼看 ‘What are you looking at ?’) in Taiwan Mandarin. Drawing 300 data items from the PTT Corpus (LOPEN project, 2014), lexemes adopted into the constructions are categorized and subcategorized to see their semantic properties. Pragmatically, the construction is examined through the lenses of the illocutionary speech acts (Searle, 1976), politeness theory (Brown & Levinson, 1987), (im)politeness reciprocity (Culpeper & Tantucci, 2021), and semantic prosody (Sinclair, 1991). The research questions ask (1) What are the semantic properties of different categories and subcategories of X? (2) Does semantic prosody play a role in the construction’s negativity? (3a) What are the speech acts that are performed by the construction? (3b) How does the X shenme X construction influence speaker interactions in terms of politeness? It is found that verbs occupy the largest percentage, echoing the canonical status of verbs in Zhao (2012). Instances of icons, suffixes, and foreign lexemes are attested for the first time. Furthermore, semantic prosody fails to account for the negativity of the construction in that the construction voices a neutral prosody. For speech acts, the construction is identified to perform the expressive and the directive act. The former expresses the speaker’s anger-oriented emotion, while the latter aims at inhibiting the hearer from performing the action, or from using the lexeme denoted by the X, a view which is in line with the findings in Zhao (2012). In terms of politeness, the construction belongs to the three strategies: negative politeness, bald on record, and off record. In addition, the construction serves as a somewhat impolite marker that shifts the conversation toward a more impolite direction. This thesis reveals the patterns, semantic prosody, speech acts, and the politeness interactions of the X shenme X construction, hoping to facilitate the understanding and application of it for not only native Chinese speakers but also Chinese learners.

Academia Sinica. (1990). Academia Sinica Tagged Corpus of Early Mandarin Chinese. http://lingcorpus.iis.sinica.edu.tw/early/
Academia Sinica. (1990). Academia Sinica Tagged Corpus of Middle Chinese. http://lingcorpus.iis.sinica.edu.tw/middle/
Academia Sinica. (1990). Academia Sinica Tagged Corpus of Old Chinese. http://lingcorpus.iis.sinica.edu.tw/ancient/
Ameka, F. (1992). Interjections: The universal yet neglected part of speech. Journal of pragmatics, 18(2-3), 101-118.
Asher, N., & Lascarides, A. (2001). Indirect speech acts. Synthese, 128(1), 183-228.
Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. Oxford University Press.
Austin, J. R., Engelberg, S., & Rauh, G. (Eds.). (2004). Adverbials: The interplay between meaning, context, and syntactic structure (Vol. 70). John Benjamins.
Baron, R. A., & Richardson, D. R. (2004). Human aggression. Springer Science & Business Media.
Borer, H. (2005). In name only. Oxford University Press.
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge University Press.
Cappelle, B., & Declerck, R. (2005). Spatial and temporal boundedness in English motion events. Journal of Pragmatics, 37(6), 889-917.
Chierchia, G. (1998). Plurality of mass nouns and the notion of “semantic parameter”. In S. Rothstein (Ed.), Events and grammar (pp. 53-103). Springer.
Christ, O. (1994). The IMS corpus workbench technical manual. Institut für maschinelle Sprachverarbeitung, Universit at Stuttgart.
Christ, O., Schulze B., Hofmann A., & Koenig E. (1999). The IMS corpus workbench: Corpus query processor (CQP): User's manual. Institute for Natural Language Processing, University of Stuttgart.
Culpeper, J., & Tantucci, V. (2021). The principle of (im) politeness reciprocity. Journal of Pragmatics, 175, 146-164.
Dowty, D. (1979). Word meaning and montague grammar—The semantics of verbs and times in generative semantics and in montague's PTQ. Reidel.
Fandom. (2014). PTT鄉民百科 [PTT netizen wikipedia]. https://pttpedia.fandom.com/zh/wiki/PTT%E9%84%89%E6%B0%91%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91
Goddard, C. (2011). Semantic analysis: A practical introduction. Oxford University Press.
Goldberg, A. E. (1995). Constructions: A construction grammar approach to argument structure. University of Chicago Press.
Goldberg, A. E. (2006). Constructions at work: The nature of generalization in language. Oxford University Press on Demand.
Grosjean, F. (1982). Life with two languages: An introduction to bilingualism. Harvard University Press.
Fillmore, C. J., Kay, P., & O’connor, M. C. (1988). Regularity and idiomaticity in grammatical constructions: The case of let alone. Language, 64(3), 501-538.
Hansen, C. (2020). Language and logic in ancient China. Advanced Reasoning Forum. (Original work published 1983)
He, B. (1992). Situation types and aspectual classes of verbs in Mandarin Chinese [Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University]. OhioLINK Electronic Theses and Dissertations Center. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1487779914827623
Hen Jen Industrial co., ltd. (2005). Taiwan News Smart Web. https://tnsw.infolinker.com.tw/
Hopper, P. J., & Thompson, S. A. (1980). Transitivity in grammar and discourse. Language, 251-299.
Hsiao. S. Y. (2012). Semantic maps of 'walk, step, run' in Southern Min and their diffusion in Mandarin speaking areas. Journal of Taiwanese Languages and Literature, 7(1), 87-127.
Hsieh, Shelley Ching-yu. (1994). A sociolinguistic study of Taiwanese loan words in Mandarin [Master’s thesis, Fu Jen Catholic University]. Fu Jen Catholic University Library Electronic Theses & Dissertations. http://140.136.208.25/cgi-bin/gs32/gsweb.cgi/ccd=0ITTtj/record?r1=5&h1=0
Huang, Y. C., & Shelley Ching-yu Depner. (2020). The evidentiality of utterance-final particles de(的) and e(欸) in Taiwan Mandarin. National Changhua University of Education Journal of Humanities, 21, 55-75
Jackendoff, R. (1997). Twistin'the night away. Language, 534-559.
Jay, T., & Janschewitz, K. (2008). The pragmatics of swearing. Journal of Politeness Research, 4, 167-288.
Michaelis, L. A., & Lambrecht, K. (1996). Toward a construction-based theory of language function: The case of nominal extraposition. Language, 215-247.
Leadbeater, B. J., & Hoglund, W. L. (2009). The effects of peer victimization and physical aggression on changes in internalizing from first to third grade. Child Development, 80(3), 843-859.
Lee, W. S. (2005). A phonetic study of the" er-hua" rimes in Beijing Mandarin. In N. Mamded (Ed.), Ninth European Conference on Speech Communication and Technology (pp. 1092-1096). International Speech Communication Association.
Lee, H., Su, D., & Tao, H. (2017). A crosslinguistic study of some extended uses of what-based interrogative expressions in Chinese, English, and Korean. Chinese Language and Discourse, 8(2), 137-173.
Li, C. N., & Thompson, S. A. (1989). Mandarin Chinese: A functional reference grammar (Vol. 3). University of California Press.
Liao, H. C. (2011). Alternatives and exhaustification: Non-interrogative uses of Chinese wh-words (Publication No. 3446166). [Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Lin, A. M. (2008). Code-switching in the classroom: research paradigms and approaches. Encyclopedia of language and education, 10, 273-286.
Lin. Q. H. (2002). Hànyǔ jùmò zhùcí ā zhī jiāoxué yǔfǎ chūtàn [A preliminary on teaching grammar of the Chinese utterance-final particle ā] [Master’s thesis, National Taiwan Normal University.] National Taiwan Normal University Theses & Dissertation Services. https://etds.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/thesis/detail/53e0b4b4cc1fe3834f33a173a14b9a09/?seq=1
Liu, B. C. (2003). Discussion of “A shenme A”. Reading and Writing, 5, 23-24.
Louw, B. (1993). Irony in the text or insincerity in the writer? The diagnostic potential of semantic prosodies. In M. Baker, G. Francis, & E. Tognini-Bonelli (Eds.), Text and technology (pp.157-173). John Benjamins.
Lü, S. X. (1999). Xiandai hanyu babai ci [Eight hundred words of contemporary Chinese]. The Commercial Press.
Lu, W. Y. (2005). Sentence-final particles as attitude markers in Mandarin Chinese [Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]. Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship. http://hdl.handle.net/2142/82630
Merriam-Webster. (2021). Hee. In Merriam-Webster online dictionary. Retrieved 8, 27, 2021, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hee
Ministry of Education, Republic of China. (2008). Dictionary of frequently used Minnan. https://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/
Ministry of Education, Republic of China. (2015). Revised Mandarin Chinese Dictionary. http://dict.revised.moe.edu.tw/cbdic/
Myers-Scotton, C. (2002). Contact linguistics: Bilingual encounters and grammatical outcomes. Oxford University Press on Demand.
National Science Council Digital Library and Museum, Republic of China. (1998). Hanyu da zidian [Comprehensive Chinese Word Dictionary].
http://words.sinica.edu.tw/sou/sou.html
Oxford University Press. (2021). Bye. In Oxford learner’s dictionaries. Retrieved 8, 27, 2021, from https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/er_1?q=er
Oxford University Press. (2021). Er. In Oxford learner’s dictionaries. Retrieved 8, 27, 2021, from https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/er_1?q=er
Partington, A. (1998). Patterns and meanings. John Benjamins.
Partington, A. (2004). "Utterly content in each other's company": Semantic prosody and semantic preference. International journal of corpus linguistics, 9(1), 131-156.
Peck, J., Lin, J., & Sun, C. (2013). Aspectual classification of Mandarin Chinese verbs: A perspective of scale structure. Language and Linguistics, 14(4), 663-700.
Peng. Y. Q. (2018). X shenme X goushi tezheng shixi [An attempt on the analysis of the X shenme X construction]. Journal of Guangxi College of Education, 2, 61-66
Piao, Z. 2009. Xiandai hanyu xingrongci de liang yanjiu [Study of quantity in Modern Chinese adjectives] [Doctoral Dissertation, Fudan University]. Fudan University Library. http://www.library.fudan.edu.cn/95/list.htm
Sadock, J. M., & Zwicky, A. M. (1985). Speech act distinction in syntax. In T. Shopen (Ed.), Language Typology and Syntactic Description III: Grammatical categories and the lexicon (pp. 155-196). Cambridge University Press.
Searle, J. R. (1975). Indirect speech acts. In P. Cole and J. L. Morgan (Eds.), Speech acts (pp. 59-82). Brill.
Searle, J. R. (1976). A classification of illocutionary acts1. Language in society, 5(1), 1-23.
Searle, J. R. (1975). A taxonomy of illocutionary acts. University of Minnesota Press.
Shi, Y. W. (1991). Questions and answers of language. Chinese Learning, 4, 50-53.
Shi, Y. Z. (2001). Kending yu fouding de duicheng yu buduicheng [Symmetry and asymmetry of assertion and negation]. Beijing Language and Culture University Press. (Original work published 1992)
Sinclair, J. (2003). Reading concordances. Pearson ESL.
Sinclair, J. M. (Ed.). (1987). Looking up: an account of the COBUILD project in lexical computing and the development of the Collins COBUILD English language dictionary. Collins Elt.
Smith, C. S. (1994). Aspectual viewpoint and situation type in Mandarin Chinese. Journal of East Asian Linguistics, 3(2), 107-146.
Tang. T. C. (1989). Hanyu cifa jufa xuji [Sequeal of Chinese morphology and syntax]. Taiwan Xinxuesheng.
Vendler, Z. (1967). Linguistics in philosophy. Cornell University Press.
Wang, Y. F., Tsai, P. H., Goodman, D., & Lin, M. Y. (2010). Agreement, acknowledgment, and alignment: The discourse-pragmatic functions of hao and dui in Taiwan Mandarin conversation. Discourse Studies, 12(2), 241-267.
Wei, S. T. (2014) A pragmatic study of the rhetorical constructions with wh-word “shenme” in Chinese: A corpus-based approach [Master’s thesis, Wenzao Ursuline University]. Wenzao Ursuline University Library of Theses and Dissertations. https://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/cgi-bin/gs32/gsweb.cgi/ccd=YE9GvL/record?r1=1&h1=0
Wierzbicka, A. (1992). The semantics of interjection. Journal of pragmatics, 18(2-3), 159-192.
Wu, D. H. (2010). Negative research of “X shenme X”. Journal of Wuchow College, 4, 56-60.
Xiao, Z., & McEnery, A. (2004). A corpus-based two-level model of situation aspect. Journal of linguistics, 40(2), 325-363.
Yan, Z. (2004). On ‘V+shenme+V’ and polite gradations in Chinese. Chinese Language Learning, 5, 30-33.
Zhao, R. (2012). A cognitive study of X shenme X construction [Master’s thesis, Yan Shan University]. Library of Yan Shan University. https://gs.ysu.edu.cn/xwgl/yxbs_sslw/lnlw.htm
Zhu, D. X. (2001). Xiandai hanyu xingrongci yanjiu [Analysis of modern Chinese adjectives]. In Zhu Dexi xuanji [Collection of Zhu Dexi] (pp.173-204). The Commercial Press. (Original work published 1956)
Zhu, J. & X. Sheng. (2002). Sentence pattern, semantic and pragmatic study of “V shenme V”. Journal of Yanbian University, 4, 92-95.
Zhu, J. (2014) Expressive function of rhetorical question format “X+shenme+X” in negative position. Chinese Language Learning, 3, 20-27.
Zhu, S. (2006). Analysis on contemporary Chinese sentence structure: X shenme X. Journal of Fujian College of Education, 10, 75-80.
Zhu, X. M. (2005). Kǒuyǔ zhōng de X shenme yǔ X shenme X jùshì (The construction of the colloquial X shenme and X shenme X) Journal of Guangxi University Philosophy and Social Science, 9, 169-171.