隨著三維地理資訊系統（3D Geographic Information System, 3D GIS）與延展實境（Extended Reality, XR）技術快速發展，空間資訊已逐漸由傳統二維地圖展示，朝向三維視覺化、沉浸式互動與智慧決策支援等方向發展。3D GIS 具備完整的空間資料管理、分析與視覺化能力，可提供高精度的三維模型、地理位置資訊及空間屬性資料。然而，傳統之資訊呈現方式仍以桌面式操作為主，在互動性與沉浸感上較為有限。相較之下，XR 技術之特色提供直覺且沉浸式的人機互動體驗，但多數應用缺乏具地理參考性的空間資料支援，於實際應用中常面臨虛擬物件與真實環境無法精確對位、空間尺度不一致及遮蔽關係錯誤等問題。若能有效結合 3D GIS 與 XR 之技術，善加運用兩者優勢，建立虛擬世界與真實世界之間的空間連結，提升 XR 系統之空間準確性、互動性及應用價值，應可為空間資訊之應用模式帶來創新的思維。
本研究以 3D GIS 與 XR 之結合作為虛實互動之核心架構，透過分析 3D GIS 與 XR 之技術架構及運作流程，提出一套結合3D GIS 與 XR之運作框架，並結合 WebXR 技術建置一套可跨平台運作之 Web-based VR 與 Location-based AR 原型系統，最後以校園再生能源設施規劃作為應用情境，驗證所提出之三維物件應用模式的可行性。發展之原型系統整合三維建物模型、空間資料庫及即時開放資料，提供三維空間瀏覽、地理屬性查詢、圖層管理、即時環境資訊展示、日照模擬、空間資料管理及再生能源設施配置等功能，使使用者能於沉浸式（VR）與半沉浸式（AR）環境中，直觀地觀察、操作與分析三維地理空間資訊。相較於一般 XR 系統多著重於虛擬內容的視覺呈現與互動，本研究進一步結合 3D GIS 所提供之高精度空間資料、語意屬性及空間分析能力，於 VR 中作為三維場景建構、空間瀏覽、地理資訊查詢與空間分析之基礎；於 AR 中則作為虛實空間對位、環境感知以及遮蔽處理之依據，使 XR 系統除具備沉浸式視覺化與自然互動外，亦能提供空間資料管理、跨平台成果共享及決策支援等功能，進一步發展為兼具地理資訊服務能力之互動式空間資訊平台。此外，以針孔相機模型（Pinhole Camera Model）為基礎，本研究將影響 XR 系統虛實空間對齊之因素歸納為定位、方向、渲染、投影及空間計算五大類。研究成果顯示，Location-based AR 系統即使具備高精度之 3D GIS 資料與環境模型，仍可能因定位誤差、姿態量測誤差、虛擬與真實相機內部參數不一致及坐標轉換誤差等因素，造成虛擬物件無法與真實環境正確對齊。因此，本研究導入 Smartphone RTK、相機標定（Camera Calibration）、固定方位與姿態量測及 3D GIS 所提供之數值高程模型等方法，進一步探討提升 AR 系統之空間定位精度與虛實對位成果之策略。研究中透過實驗分析各項因素對空間偏移與視覺誤差之影響，探討其誤差來源，釐清 Location-based AR 系統於實際應用中所面臨之限制與挑戰。另一方面，針對 XR 應用中常見之遮蔽問題，本研究進一步將其歸納為空間位置與幾何對位錯誤，以及前後遮蔽關係錯誤兩種類型，並提出一套基於三維模型（Model-based）之遮蔽處理方法。該方法利用 3D GIS 所提供之建築物模型建立環境深度資訊，結合電腦圖學之深度測試（Depth Testing）機制，有效改善傳統 AR 系統中虛擬物件遮蔽關係錯誤的問題，提升虛擬物件與真實環境之空間一致性、遮蔽正確性及整體視覺真實感。
整體而言，本研究驗證了 3D GIS 不僅能作為 XR 系統之高精度空間資料來源，更能從系統架構層面提供資料管理、資料查詢、空間分析、坐標轉換及遮蔽處理等核心能力，使 XR 系統由傳統以視覺展示為主的互動應用，進一步發展為兼具地理空間資訊管理、分析、輔助展示與智慧決策支援能力之新一代空間資訊平台。尤其在擴展應用面向上，研究成果可作為未來智慧城市、數位孿生、都市規劃、公共設施管理及再生能源規劃等領域發展 3D GIS 與 XR 虛實結合應用的重要參考。

With the rapid development of Three-Dimensional Geographic Information Systems (3D GIS) and Extended Reality (XR) technologies, spatial information has evolved from traditional two-dimensional map visualization toward three-dimensional and immersive representations. However, conventional 3D GIS applications remain primarily desktop-based, limiting user interaction and immersion. In contrast, XR provides intuitive and immersive user experiences but generally lacks georeferenced spatial information, often resulting in virtual object misalignment, inconsistent spatial scales, and incorrect occlusion relationships. To address these issues, this study analyzes the technical architectures and operational workflows of both 3D GIS and XR and proposes an integrated framework that combines the strengths of these two technologies. Based on this framework, Web-based Virtual Reality (VR) and Location-based Augmented Reality (AR) prototype systems were developed to validate the feasibility of the proposed approach.
Furthermore, based on the Pinhole Camera Model, the factors affecting XR performance were categorized into five major components: Position, Orientation, Rendering, Projection, and Spatial Computation. A series of experiments was conducted to evaluate the influence of these factors on spatial accuracy and visual consistency in XR environments. In addition, the occlusion problem commonly encountered in XR applications was classified into two categories: spatial and geometric misalignment and incorrect front–back occlusion relationships. To overcome these issues, a model-based occlusion handling method was proposed, utilizing three-dimensional environmental models to improve the spatial consistency and occlusion accuracy between virtual objects and the real world.
The experimental results demonstrate that 3D GIS serves not only as a high-precision spatial data source for XR systems but also provides capabilities for spatial positioning, data management, spatial analysis, and decision support. These findings highlight the significant potential of integrating 3D GIS with XR technologies and provide a practical framework for achieving seamless integration between the virtual and real worlds.

Ahmed, R., Mahmud, K. H., & Tuya, J. H. (2021). A GIS-Based Mathematical Approach for Generating 3D Terrain Model from High-Resolution UAV Imageries. Journal of Geovisualization and Spatial Analysis, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41651-021-00094-7
Alfakhori, M., Sardi Barzallo, J. S., & Coors, V. (2023). Occlusion Handling for Mobile AR Applications in Indoor and Outdoor Scenarios. Sensors (Basel), 23(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/s23094245
Alhady, A., Alanany, M., Khodair, Y., Salem, S., & El Maghraby, Y. (2024). Integrating building information modelling (BIM) and extended reality (XR) in the transportation infrastructure industry. Advances in Bridge Engineering, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43251-024-00132-6
Alkady, Y., Rizk, R., Alsekait, D. M., Alluhaidan, A. S., & Abdelminaam, D. S. (2024). SINS_AR: An Efficient Smart Indoor Navigation System Based on Augmented Reality. IEEE Access, 12, 109171–109183. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3439357
Alsalleeh, F., Okazaki, K., Alkahtany, S., Alrwais, F., Bendahmash, M., & Al Sadhan, R. e. (2024). Augmented Reality Improved Knowledge and Efficiency of Root Canal Anatomy Learning: A Comparative Study. Applied Sciences, 14(15). https://doi.org/10.3390/app14156813
Andrienko, N., Andrienko, G., & Gatalsky, P. (2003). Exploratory spatio-temporal visualization: an analytical review. Journal of Visual Languages and Computing, 14(6), 503–541. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1045-926x(03)00046-6
Azini, P., Estejab, H., Raisali, F., Jafari, N., & Hedayat, D. (2026). Leveraging extended reality technologies to enhance the architectural design of healthcare environments: A Systematic Review. Appl Ergon, 131, 104656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2025.104656
Ball, J., Capanni, N., & Watt, S. (2005). Virtual reality for mutual understanding in landscape planning. Development, 2.
Bishop, I., Wherrett, J., & Miller, D. (2001). Assessment of path choices on a country walk using a virtual environment. Landscape and Urban Planning, 52(4), 225–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0169-2046(00)00118-3
Carmigniani, J., Furht, B., Anisetti, M., Ceravolo, P., Damiani, E., & Ivkovic, M. (2010). Augmented reality technologies, systems and applications. Multimedia Tools and Applications, 51(1), 341–377. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-010-0660-6
Chai, J. J. K., O'Sullivan, C., Gowen, A. A., Rooney, B., & Xu, J.-L. (2022). Augmented/mixed reality technologies for food: A review. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 124, 182–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2022.04.021
Cheliotis, K., Liarokapis, F., Kokla, M., Tomai, E., Pastra, K., Anastopoulou, N., Bezerianou, M., Darra, A., & Kavouras, M. (2024). UnityGeoAR: A geolocation Augmented Reality package for Unity3D. SoftwareX, 27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.softx.2024.101774
Comport, A., Marchand, E., Pressigout, M., & Chaumette, F. (2006). Real-time markerless tracking for augmented reality: The virtual visual servoing framework. Ieee Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, 12(4), 615–628. https://doi.org/10.1109/tvcg.2006.78
da Silva, L., Pimenov, D., da Silva, R., Ercetin, A., & Giasin, K. (2025). Review of Applications of Digital Twins and Industry 4.0 for Machining [Review]. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 9(7), 29, Article 211. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9070211
del Campo, G., Saavedra, E., Piovano, L., Luque, F., & Santamaria, A. (2024). Virtual Reality and Internet of Things Based Digital Twin for Smart City Cross-Domain Interoperability. Applied Sciences, 14(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/app14072747
Do, T. L. P., Sanhae, K., Hwang, L., & Lee, S. (2024). Real-Time Spatial Mapping in Architectural Visualization: A Comparison among Mixed Reality Devices. Sensors (Basel), 24(14). https://doi.org/10.3390/s24144727
Ferré-Bigorra, J., Casals, M., & Gangolells, M. (2022). The adoption of urban digital twins. Cities, 131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2022.103905
Fitzpatrick, M., & Hedley, N. (2024). Review of the state of practice in geovisualization in the geosciences. Frontiers in Earth Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2023.1230973
Forsythe, K. W., Ford, D. E., Marvin, C. H., Shaker, R. R., MacDonald, M. W., & Wilkinson, R. (2021). Multivariable 3D Geovisualization of Historic and Contemporary Lead Sediment Contamination in Lake Erie. Pollutants, 1(1), 29–50. https://doi.org/10.3390/pollutants1010004
Ghadirian, P., & Bishop, I. D. (2008). Integration of augmented reality and GIS: A new approach to realistic landscape visualisation. Landscape and Urban Planning, 86(3), 226–232. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2008.03.004
Gong, L., Johansson, B., & Fast-Berglund, Å. (2023). Developing Extended Reality Systems for Manufacturing Industry (Publication Number 9798496572682) [Dissertation/Thesis, <Go to ISI>://PQDT:51280463
Ham, Y., & Kim, J. (2020). Participatory Sensing and Digital Twin City: Updating Virtual City Models for Enhanced Risk-Informed Decision-Making. Journal of Management in Engineering, 36(3), 04020005. https://doi.org/doi:10.1061/(ASCE)ME.1943-5479.0000748
Huang, B., Jiang, B., & Li, H. (2010). An integration of GIS, virtual reality and the Internet for visualization, analysis and exploration of spatial data. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 15(5), 439–456. https://doi.org/10.1080/13658810110046574
Huang, T.-C., & Tseng, H.-P. (2025). Extended Reality in Applied Sciences Education: A Systematic Review. Applied Sciences, 15(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/app15074038
Hugues, O., Cieutat, J., & Guitton, P. (2011). GIS and Augmented Reality: State of the Art and Issues (Publication Number 978-1-4614-0063-9) [; Book Chapter, <Go to ISI>://WOS:000300642100033
Iranshahi, K., Brun, J., Arnold, T., Sergi, T., & Müller, U. C. (2025). Digital twins: Recent advances and future directions in engineering fields. Intelligent Systems with Applications, 26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswa.2025.200516
Jagatheesaperumal, S. K., Ahmad, K., Al-Fuqaha, A., & Qadir, J. (2024). Advancing Education Through Extended Reality and Internet of Everything Enabled Metaverses: Applications, Challenges, and Open Issues. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 17, 1120–1139. https://doi.org/10.1109/tlt.2024.3358859
Jaillot, V., Rigolle, V., Servigne, S., Samuel, J., & Gesquière, G. (2021). Integrating multimedia documents and time‐evolving 3D city models for web visualization and navigation. Transactions in GIS, 25(3), 1419–1438. https://doi.org/10.1111/tgis.12734
Janeras, M., Roca, J., Gili, J. A., Pedraza, O., Magnusson, G., Núñez-Andrés, M. A., & Franklin, K. (2022). Using Mixed Reality for the Visualization and Dissemination of Complex 3D Models in Geosciences—Application to the Montserrat Massif (Spain). Geosciences, 12(10). https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences12100370
Jones, D., Snider, C., Nassehi, A., Yon, J., & Hicks, B. (2020). Characterising the Digital Twin: A systematic literature review. CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology, 29, 36–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirpj.2020.02.002
Jurik, V., Herman, L., Snopkova, D., Galang, A. J., Stachon, Z., Chmelik, J., Kubicek, P., & Sasinka, C. (2020). The 3D hype: Evaluating the potential of real 3D visualization in geo-related applications. PLoS One, 15(5), e0233353. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0233353
Kikuchi, N., Fukuda, T., & Yabuki, N. (2022). Future landscape visualization using a city digital twin: integration of augmented reality and drones with implementation of 3D model-based occlusion handling. Journal of Computational Design and Engineering, 9(2), 837–856. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcde/qwac032
Koch, C., Neges, M., König, M., & Abramovici, M. (2014). Natural markers for augmented reality-based indoor navigation and facility maintenance. Automation in Construction, 48, 18–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2014.08.009
Kourtesis, P. (2024). A Comprehensive Review of Multimodal XR Applications, Risks, and Ethical Challenges in the Metaverse. Multimodal Technologies and Interaction, 8(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/mti8110098
Kwan, M. (2000). Interactive geovisualization of activity-travel patterns using three-dimensional geographical information systems: a methodological exploration with a large data set. Transportation Research Part C-Emerging Technologies, 8(1-6), 185–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0968-090x(00)00017-6
La Guardia, M. (2025). 3D Urban Digital Twinning on the Web with Low-Cost Technology: 3D Geospatial Data and IoT Integration for Wellness Monitoring. Big Data and Cognitive Computing, 9(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/bdcc9040107
Li, B., Wang, X., Gao, Q., Song, Z., Zou, C., & Liu, S. (2022). A 3D Scene Information Enhancement Method Applied in Augmented Reality. Electronics, 11(24). https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11244123
Li, J., Wang, C., Kang, X., & Zhao, Q. (2019). Camera localization for augmented reality and indoor positioning: a vision-based 3D feature database approach. International Journal of Digital Earth, 13(6), 727–741. https://doi.org/10.1080/17538947.2018.1564379
Li, W., Wang, J., Liu, M., & Zhao, S. (2022). Real-time occlusion handling for augmented reality assistance assembly systems with monocular images. Journal of Manufacturing Systems, 62, 561–574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmsy.2022.01.012
Li, X., Yue, J., Wang, S., Luo, Y., Su, C., Zhou, J., Xu, D., & Lu, H. (2023). Development of Geographic Information System Architecture Feature Analysis and Evolution Trend Research. Sustainability, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/su16010137
Li, Z., Ning, H., Gao, S., Janowicz, K., Li, W., Arundel, S. T., Yang, C., Bhaduri, B., Wang, S., Zhu, A. X., Gahegan, M., Shekhar, S., Ye, X., McKenzie, G., Cervone, G., & Hodgson, M. E. (2025). GIScience in the era of Artificial Intelligence: a research agenda towards Autonomous GIS. Annals of GIS, 31(4), 501–536. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475683.2025.2552161
Lin, T.-T., Hsiung, Y.-K., Hong, G.-L., Chang, H.-K., & Lu, F.-M. (2008). Development of a virtual reality GIS using stereo vision. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 63(1), 38–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2008.01.017
Liu, X., Jiang, D., Tao, B., Xiang, F., Jiang, G., Sun, Y., Kong, J., & Li, G. (2023). A systematic review of digital twin about physical entities, virtual models, twin data, and applications. Advanced Engineering Informatics, 55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aei.2023.101876
Liu, Y., Zhang, L., Yang, Y., Zhou, L., Ren, L., Wang, F., Liu, R., Pang, Z., & Deen, M. J. (2019). A Novel Cloud-Based Framework for the Elderly Healthcare Services Using Digital Twin. IEEE Access, 7, 49088–49101. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2909828
Lovett, A., Appleton, K., Warren-Kretzschmar, B., & Von Haaren, C. (2015). Using 3D visualization methods in landscape planning: An evaluation of options and practical issues. Landscape and Urban Planning, 142, 85–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.02.021
Lü, G., Batty, M., Strobl, J., Lin, H., Zhu, A., & Chen, M. (2019). Reflections and speculations on the progress in Geographic Information Systems (GIS): a geographic perspective [Review]. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 33(2), 346–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/13658816.2018.1533136
Lu, Y., Liu, C., Wang, K. I. K., Huang, H., & Xu, X. (2020). Digital Twin-driven smart manufacturing: Connotation, reference model, applications and research issues. Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, 61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcim.2019.101837
Ma, W., Zhang, S., & Huang, J. (2021). Mobile augmented reality based indoor map for improving geo-visualization. PeerJ Comput Sci, 7, e704. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.704
Maathuis, C., Cidota, M. A., Datcu, D., & Marin, L. (2025). Integrating Explainable Artificial Intelligence in Extended Reality Environments: A Systematic Survey. Mathematics, 13(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/math13020290
Marchand, E., Uchiyama, H., & Spindler, F. (2016). Pose Estimation for Augmented Reality: A Hands-On Survey. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Graph, 22(12), 2633–2651. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2015.2513408
Mekki, Y., Luijten, G., Hagert, E., Belkhair, S., Varghese, C., Qadir, J., Solaiman, B., Bilal, M., Dhanda, J., Egger, J., Deng, J., Khanduja, V., Frangi, A., Zughaier, S., & Stotland, M. (2025). Digital twins for the era of personalized surgery [Review]. Npj Digital Medicine, 8(1), 8, Article 283. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-025-01575-5
Mendoza-Ramírez, C. E., Tudon-Martinez, J. C., Félix-Herrán, L. C., Lozoya-Santos, J. d. J., & Vargas-Martínez, A. (2023). Augmented Reality: Survey. Applied Sciences, 13(18). https://doi.org/10.3390/app131810491
Milgram, P., & Kishino, F. (1994). A TAXONOMY OF MIXED REALITY VISUAL-DISPLAYS [; Proceedings Paper]. Ieice Transactions on Information and Systems, E77D(12), 1321–1329.
Ogawa, T., & Mashita, T. (2021). Occlusion Handling in Outdoor Augmented Reality using a Combination of Map Data and Instance Segmentation 2021 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality Adjunct (ISMAR-Adjunct),
Ong, S. K., Yuan, M. L., & Nee, A. Y. C. (2008). Augmented reality applications in manufacturing: a survey. International Journal of Production Research, 46(10), 2707–2742. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207540601064773
Orland, B., Budthimedhee, K., & Uusitalo, J. (2001). Considering virtual worlds as representations of landscape realities and as tools for landscape planning [; Proceedings Paper]. Landscape and Urban Planning, 54(1-4), 139–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0169-2046(01)00132-3
Pan, X., Huang, G., Zhang, Z., Li, J., Bao, H., & Zhang, G. (2024). Robust Collaborative Visual-Inertial SLAM for Mobile Augmented Reality. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Graph, 30(11), 7354–7363. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2024.3456152
Parida, K., Bark, H., & Lee, P. S. (2021). Emerging Thermal Technology Enabled Augmented Reality. Advanced Functional Materials, 31(39). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202007952
Pavelka, K., & Landa, M. (2024). Using Virtual and Augmented Reality with GIS Data. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 13(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi13070241
Portman, M. E., Natapov, A., & Fisher-Gewirtzman, D. (2015). To go where no man has gone before: Virtual reality in architecture, landscape architecture and environmental planning. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 54, 376–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2015.05.001
Rauschnabel, P. A., Felix, R., Hinsch, C., Shahab, H., & Alt, F. (2022). What is XR? Towards a Framework for Augmented and Virtual Reality. Computers in Human Behavior, 133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107289
Rauschnabel, P. A., Rossmann, A., & tom Dieck, M. C. (2017). An adoption framework for mobile augmented reality games: The case of Pokémon Go. Computers in Human Behavior, 76, 276–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.07.030
Rokhsaritalemi, S., Sadeghi-Niaraki, A., & Choi, S.-M. (2023). Exploring Emotion Analysis Using Artificial Intelligence, Geospatial Information Systems, and Extended Reality for Urban Services. IEEE Access, 11, 92478–92495. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3307639
Romano, S., & Hedley, N. (2021). Daylighting Past Realities: Making Historical Social Injustice Visible Again Using HGIS-Based Virtual and Mixed Reality Experiences. Journal of Geovisualization and Spatial Analysis, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41651-021-00077-8
Roy, S., Singh, S., & Rizwan, u. (2024). XR and digital twins, and their role in human factor studies. Frontiers in Energy Research, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2024.1359688
Rzeszewski, M., & Orylski, M. (2021). Usability of WebXR Visualizations in Urban Planning. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 10(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi10110721
S, I., & Clement, J. C. (2024). Convex-based lightweight feature descriptor for Augmented Reality Tracking. PLoS One, 19(7), e0305199. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305199
Safari Bazargani, J., Zafari, M., Sadeghi-Niaraki, A., & Choi, S.-M. (2022). A Survey of GIS and AR Integration: Applications. Sustainability, 14(16). https://doi.org/10.3390/su141610134
Semeraro, C., Lezoche, M., Panetto, H., & Dassisti, M. (2021). Digital twin paradigm: A systematic literature review. Computers in Industry, 130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compind.2021.103469
Singla, J. (2021). Virtual reality based novel use case in remote sensing and GIS. Current Science, 121(7), 958–961. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v121/i7/958-961
Stylianidis, E., Valari, E., Pagani, A., Carrillo, I., Kounoudes, A., Michail, K., & Smagas, K. (2020). Augmented Reality Geovisualisation for Underground Utilities. PFG – Journal of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Geoinformation Science, 88(2), 173–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41064-020-00108-x
Tao, F., Zhang, H., Liu, A., & Nee, A. Y. C. (2019). Digital Twin in Industry: State-of-the-Art. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, 15(4), 2405–2415. https://doi.org/10.1109/tii.2018.2873186
Tian, Y., Long, Y., Xia, D., Yao, H., & Zhang, J. (2015). Handling occlusions in augmented reality based on 3D reconstruction method. Neurocomputing, 156, 96–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neucom.2014.12.081
Tian, Y., Zhou, X., Wang, X., Wang, Z., & Yao, H. (2021). Registration and occlusion handling based on the FAST ICP-ORB method for augmented reality systems. Multimedia Tools and Applications, 80(14), 21041–21058. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-020-10342-5
Tortora, M., Luppi, A., Pacchiano, F., Marisei, M., Grassi, F., Werner, H., Kitamura, F. C., Tortora, F., Caranci, F., & Ferraciolli, S. F. (2025). Current applications and future perspectives of extended reality in radiology. Radiol Med, 130(6), 905–920. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11547-025-02001-2
Vavra, P., Roman, J., Zonca, P., Ihnat, P., Nemec, M., Kumar, J., Habib, N., & El-Gendi, A. (2017). Recent Development of Augmented Reality in Surgery: A Review. J Healthc Eng, 2017, 4574172. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/4574172
Vinueza-Martinez, J., Correa-Peralta, M., Ramirez-Anormaliza, R., Franco Arias, O., & Vera Paredes, D. (2024). Geographic Information Systems (GISs) Based on WebGIS Architecture: Bibliometric Analysis of the Current Status and Research Trends. Sustainability, 16(15). https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156439
Wang, B., Zheng, L., Wang, Y., Fang, W., & Wang, L. (2024). Towards the industry 5.0 frontier: Review and prospect of XR in product assembly. Journal of Manufacturing Systems, 74, 777–811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmsy.2024.05.002
Wang, W., Lv, Z., Li, X., Xu, W., Zhang, B., Zhu, Y., & Yan, Y. (2018). Spatial query based virtual reality GIS analysis platform. Neurocomputing, 274, 88–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neucom.2016.06.099
Xiong, J., Hsiang, E. L., He, Z., Zhan, T., & Wu, S. T. (2021). Augmented reality and virtual reality displays: emerging technologies and future perspectives. Light Sci Appl, 10(1), 216. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-021-00658-8
Zhang, Y., Yue, P., Zhang, G., Guan, T., Lv, M., & Zhong, D. (2019). Augmented Reality Mapping of Rock Mass Discontinuities and Rockfall Susceptibility Based on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Photogrammetry. Remote Sensing, 11(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11111311
Zhu, J., Pan, Z., Sun, C., & Chen, W. (2009). Handling occlusions in video‐based augmented reality using depth information. Computer Animation and Virtual Worlds, 21(5), 509–521. https://doi.org/10.1002/cav.326