Dental caries is one of the common oral diseases in dentistry, leading to serious consequences that directly affect the physical and mental health of patients. The treatment of tooth decay can be divided into two main groups: prevention when the disease has not occurred and treatment of conditions that have become severe, causing irreversible damage to the tooth structure. For that reason, dental students need to be trained well so that they can master the knowledge and skills of treatment in the field of dental caries at the pre-clinical stage, practice on dental models before performing formal treatment on the patient's mouth. Preclinical teaching is always a challenge in dental training for both teachers and learners when we are dependent on the source of extracted human teeth or series teeth from manufacturers. These materials are not only heterogeneous in pathologies, cannot simulate natural dental anatomical features such as color or texture, but also pose a potential risk of infection, affecting the health of teachers and learners. The demand for tooth models that can solve all the above problems is increasing, and the birth of 3D virtual teeth has met that need.
Today, there are many methods to create 3D models from real objects such as using 3D scanner or CBCT, but both methods have many limitations in terms of the quality of 3D model created or investment costs. This study used photogrammetry as an optimal choice when creating 3D models for dental education. However, this study is not only creating 3D virtual caried teeth but also an accompanying ontology database such as tooth identification, classification, and description of caries according to G.V Black classification, treatment methods and associated tools and materials. This can give a holistic view to learners as they encounter these teeth, especially for students in the early years of learning.
Keywords: dental caries, 3D virtual caried teeth, photogrammetry, dental caries ontology dataset.

[1] P. B.Hunter, “Risk factors in dental caries,” Int. Dent. J., vol. 38, no. 4, p. 211—217, Dec.1988, [Online]. Available: http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/3063664.
[2] I. R.DeBoer, P. R.Wesselink, and J. M.Vervoorn, “The creation of virtual teeth with and without tooth pathology for a virtual learning environment in dental education,” Eur. J. Dent. Educ., vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 191–197, 2013, doi: 10.1111/eje.12027.
[3] J. E.Aycock and E. E.Hill, “Should preclinical typodonts be disinfected prior to grading?,” J. Dent. Educ., vol. 73, no. 1, pp. 133–136, Jan.2009.
[4] L.Freina and M.Ott, “A literature review on immersive virtual reality in education: State of the art and perspectives,” Proc. eLearning Softw. Educ. (eLSE)(Bucharest, Rom. April 23--24, 2015), no. July, p. 8, 2015.
[5] A.Ayoub and Y.Pulijala, “The application of virtual reality and augmented reality in Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery,” BMC Oral Health, vol. 19, no. 1, p. 238, Nov.2019, doi: 10.1186/s12903-019-0937-8.
[6] “http://www.buzzle.com/articles/virtual-reality-in-architecture.html.”
[7] D.Ota, B.Loftin, T.Saito, R.Lea, and J.Keller, “Virtual reality in surgical education.,” Comput. Biol. Med., vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 127–137, Mar.1995, doi: 10.1016/0010-4825(94)00009-f.
[8] F.Quinn, P.Keogh, A.McDonald, and D.Hussey, “A pilot study comparing the effectiveness of conventional training and virtual reality simulation in the skills acquisition of junior dental students.,” Eur. J. Dent. Educ. Off. J. Assoc. Dent. Educ. Eur., vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 13–19, Feb.2003, doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0579.2003.00264.x.
[9] N.Kusumoto, T.Sohmura, S.Yamada, K.Wakabayashi, T.Nakamura, andH.Yatani, “Application of virtual reality force feedback haptic device for oral implant surgery.,” Clin. Oral Implants Res., vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 708–713, Dec.2006, doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0501.2006.01218.x.
[10] “H. Ardiny and E. Khanmirza, ‘The Role of AR and VR Technologies in Education Developments: Opportunities and Challenges,’ 2018 6th RSI International Conference on Robotics and Mechatronics (IcRoM), 2018, pp. 482-487, doi: 10.1109/ICRoM.2018.8657615.”
[11] P.Singh and P.Sehgal, “G.V Black dental caries classification and preparation technique using optimal CNN-LSTM classifier,” Multimed. Tools Appl., vol. 80, no. 4, pp. 5255–5272, 2021, doi: 10.1007/s11042-020-09891-6.
[12] “https://dentodontics.com/2015/02/26/g-v-blacks-classification-of-carious-lesions/.”
[13] I.Dixit, S.Kennedy, J.Piemontesi, B.Kennedy, andC.Krebs, “Which Tool Is Best: 3D Scanning or Photogrammetry – It Depends on the Task BT - Biomedical Visualisation : Volume 1,” P. M.Rea, Ed.Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2019, pp. 107–119.
[14] “https://www.newtom.it/es/veterinario/3d-cbct-imaging/5g-xl-vet/.”
[15] I. R.deBoer, M. D.Lagerweij, P. R.Wesselink, andJ. M.Vervoorn, “Evaluation of the appreciation of virtual teeth with and without pathology,” Eur. J. Dent. Educ., vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 87–94, 2015, doi: 10.1111/eje.12108.
[16] “https://www.adelaide.edu.au/microscopy/facilities-services/instrumentation/x-ray-micro-tomography-micro-ct.”
[17] “https://www.trademed.com/products/4503/CBCT-Scanner.html.”
[18] E.Kröger, M.Dekiff, and D.Dirksen, “3D printed simulation models based on real patient situations for hands-on practice.,” Eur. J. Dent. Educ. Off. J. Assoc. Dent. Educ. Eur., vol. 21, no. 4, pp. e119–e125, Nov.2017, doi: 10.1111/eje.12229.
[19] M.Javaid, A.Haleem, and L.Kumar, “Current status and applications of 3D scanning in dentistry,” Clin. Epidemiol. Glob. Heal., vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 228–233, 2019, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cegh.2018.07.005.
[20] T.Schenk, “Introduction to Photogrammetry Course structure - GS400.02 lecture notes,” Imaging, pp. 1–29, 2005, [Online]. Available: https://www.mat.uc.pt/~gil/downloads/IntroPhoto.pdf.
[21] M. J.Westoby, J.Brasington, N. F.Glasser, M. J.Hambrey, andJ. M.Reynolds, “‘Structure-from-Motion’ photogrammetry: A low-cost, effective tool for geoscience applications,” Geomorphology, vol. 179, pp. 300–314, 2012, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.08.021.
[22] M.Syngelaki, M.Hardner, P.Oberthuer, T.Bley, D.Schneider, andF.Lenk, “A new method for non-invasive biomass determination based on stereo photogrammetry.,” Bioprocess Biosyst. Eng., vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 369–380, Mar.2018, doi: 10.1007/s00449-017-1871-2.
[23] R. T.Clark et al., “Three-dimensional root phenotyping with a novel imaging and software platform.,” Plant Physiol., vol. 156, no. 2, pp. 455–465, Jun.2011, doi: 10.1104/pp.110.169102.
[24] B.Biskup, H.Scharr, U.Schurr, andU.Rascher, “A stereo imaging system for measuring structural parameters of plant canopies.,” Plant. Cell Environ., vol. 30, no. 10, pp. 1299–1308, Oct.2007, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2007.01702.x.
[25] V. T.Stuani, R.Ferreira, G. G. P.Manfredi, M.VCardoso, andA. C. P.Sant’Ana, “Photogrammetry as an alternative for acquiring digital dental models: A proof of concept,” Med. Hypotheses, vol. 128, pp. 43–49, 2019, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2019.05.015.
[26] F.Ravasini, M.Fornari, and M.Bonanini, “Quantification of the amount of dental material removed by selective grinding in wax dentures with photogrammetric measurements.,” Minerva Stomatol., vol. 65, no. 6, pp. 335–342, Dec.2016.
[27] A.Sánchez-Monescillo, A.Sánchez-Turrión, E.Vellon-Domarco, C.Salinas-Goodier, andJ. C.Prados-Frutos, “Photogrammetry Impression Technique: A Case History Report.,” Int. J. Prosthodont., vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 71–73, 2016, doi: 10.11607/ijp.4287.
[28] H. L.Mitchell and I.Newton, “Medical photogrammetric measurement: overview and prospects,” ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens., vol. 56, no. 5, pp. 286–294, 2002, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-2716(02)00065-5.
[29] F. Z.Kulczynski, F. de O.Andriola, P. H.Deon, D. A. da S.Melo, andR. M.Pagnoncelli, “Postural Assessment in Class III Patients Before Orthognathic Surgery.,” J. oral Maxillofac. Surg. Off. J. Am. Assoc. Oral Maxillofac. Surg., vol. 76, no. 2, pp. 426–435, Feb.2018, doi: 10.1016/j.joms.2017.07.157.
[30] M.Almuzian, A.Almukhtar, M.neil, P.Benington, T.Al-Anezi, andA.Ayoub, “Innovation in prediction planning for anterior open bite correction,” Aust. Orthod. J., vol. 31, Apr.2015, doi: 10.21307/aoj-2020-143.
[31] C.Silvester and S.Hillson, “A critical assessment of the potential for Structure‐from‐Motion photogrammetry to produce high fidelity 3D dental models,” Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., vol. 173, Aug.2020, doi: 10.1002/ajpa.24109.
[32] A.Gallo, M.Muzzupappa, and F.Bruno, “3D reconstruction of small sized objects from a sequence of multi-focused images,” J. Cult. Herit., vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 173–182, 2014, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2013.04.009.
[33] W.Linder, “Digital Photogrammetry-A practical course.”
[34] “National commision on recognition of dental specialties and certifying boards.”
[35] “https://pocketdentistry.com/12-the-dental-examination/.”
[36] D.Katz and M.Friess, “Technical note: 3D from standard digital photography of human crania-a preliminary assessment.,” Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., vol. 154, no. 1, pp. 152–158, May2014, doi: 10.1002/ajpa.22468.
[37] S. A.Azer and S.Azer, “3D Anatomy Models and Impact on Learning: A Review of the Quality of the Literature,” Heal. Prof. Educ., vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 80–98, 2016, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hpe.2016.05.002.
[38] “https://poly.cam/.”
[39] A.Joshi, S.Kale, S.Chandel, and D.Pal, “Likert Scale: Explored and Explained,” Br. J. Appl. Sci. Technol., vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 396–403, 2015, doi: 10.9734/bjast/2015/14975.
[40] Y.Yang et al., “Influence of Coating Spray on Surface Measurement Using 3D Optical Scanning Systems,” 2019, vol. Volume 1: Additive Manufacturing; Manufacturing Equipment and Systems; Bio and Sustainable Manufacturing, doi: 10.1115/MSEC2019-2898.