簡易檢索 / 詳目顯示

研究生: 歐陽美麗
Bunpatimakorn, Athita
論文名稱: Risk Perception, Destination Image, and Cultural Distance Affecting Visit Intention: A Comparison between Bangkok and Islamabad
Risk Perception, Destination Image, and Cultural Distance Affecting Visit Intention: A Comparison between Bangkok and Islamabad
指導教授: 黃國平
Hwang, Kevin P.
學位類別: 碩士
Master
系所名稱: 管理學院 - 國際經營管理研究所碩士班
Institute of International Management (IIMBA--Master)
論文出版年: 2010
畢業學年度: 98
語文別: 英文
論文頁數: 103
外文關鍵詞: Risk perception, Destination image, Cultural distance, Intention to visit, Bangkok, Islamabad.
相關次數: 點閱:74下載:1
分享至:
查詢本校圖書館目錄 查詢臺灣博碩士論文知識加值系統 勘誤回報
  • Tourism is commonly described today as the world’s largest industry. It is big business and is expected to become even bigger business in the next century. Developing countries, in particular, look to the tourism industry to generate foreign exchange, provide jobs, and improve economic growth.
    The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of risk perception, destination image and cultural distance on tourist’s intention to visit a destination. It is a comparison between two destinations which are Bangkok, Thailand and Islamabad, Pakistan. Tourism industry in these cities has been influenced from political instability issue. We would like to explore if such perceived risks involving in political instability affect tourist decision to visit Bangkok and Islamabad or not. In addition, due to the nature of the tourism experience and destinations are intangible, therefore it depends heavily on positive images. Countries with a negative image due to past events of violence often attempt to improve their image. However, some countries with their few unique characteristics might easily be replaced by other destinations with similar characteristics.
    To reach the aim of this research, the questionnaire survey will be conducted through the internet to observe the respondents who stay outside Thailand and Pakistan. This research also provides useful information to the Thai and Pakistani hospitality industry and the travel and tourism research.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I ABSTRACT II TABLE OF CONTENTS III LIST OF TABLES VI LIST OF FIGURES VIII CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Research Background and Motivation. 1 1.1.1 Thailand. 2 1.1.2 Pakistan. 6 1.2 Research Objectives and Contributions. 9 1.3 Research Flow. 10 1.4 Structure of the Study. 11 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 13 2.1 Definition of Independent Variables. 13 2.1.1 Risk Perception. 13 2.1.2 Destination Image. 15 2.1.3 Cultural Distance. 18 2.2 Definition of Dependent Variable – Intention to Visit. 19 2.3 Interrelationship between Variables. 20 2.3.1 Relationship between Risk Perception and Intention to Visit. 20 2.3.2 Relationship between Destination Image and Intention to Visit. 22 2.3.3 Relationship between Cultural Distance and Intention to Visit. 23 2.3.4 Relationship between Risk Perception and Intention to Visit: Moderating Effect of Destination. 25 2.3.5 Relationship between Destination Image and Intention to Visit: Moderating Effect of Destination. 26 2.3.6 Relationship between Cultural Distance and Intention to Visit: Moderating Effect of Nationality. 26 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 28 3.1 Conceptual Model. 28 3.2 Construct Measurement. 29 3.2.1 Risk Perception. 29 3.2.2 Destination Image. 31 3.2.3 Cultural Distance. 34 3.2.4 Intention to Visit. 35 3.2.5 Personal Information. 35 3.3 Hypotheses to be Tested. 36 3.4 Questionnaire Development and Sampling Plan. 36 3.5 Data Analysis Techniques. 37 3.5.1 Descriptive Statistic Analysis. 37 3.5.2 Purification and Reliability Tests. 37 3.5.3 Hypotheses Testing. 38 CHAPTER FOUR DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS AND RELIABILITY TESTS 40 4.1 Descriptive Analysis. 40 4.1.1 Data Collection. 40 4.1.2 Characteristic of Respondents. 41 4.2 Measurement Result for Relative Research Variables. 43 4.3 Factor Analysis and Reliability Test. 50 4.3.1 Risk Perception. 50 4.3.2 Destination Image. 55 4.3.3 Cultural Distance. 58 4.3.4 Intention to Visit. 60 CHAPTER FIVE RESEARCH ANALYSIS AND RESULT 62 5.1 Testing the Full Model Using Structural Equation Models (SEM). 62 5.2 Canonical Analysis. 69 5.3 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). 70 CHAPTER SIX RESEARCH CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION 78 6.1 Research Conclusion. 78 6.2 Research Implications and Contributions. 81 6.2.1 Academic Implication. 81 6.2.2 Managerial Implications. 81 6.3 Research Limitations. 83 6.4 Further Research Suggestions. 83 REFERENCES 84 APPENDICES 93 Appendix 1: Questionnaire for Experiment. 93

    Al-Hamarneh, A., & Steiner, C. (2004). Islamic Tourism: Rethinking the Strategies of Tourism Development in the Arab World After September 11, 2001. Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 24(1), 173-182.
    Armstrong, K. (2001). Islam: A short history. London: Phoenix Press.
    Baloglu, S. (1999). A path analytic model of visitation intention involving information sources, socio-psychological motivations, and destination image. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 8(3), 81-91.
    Baloglu, S. (2001). Image variations of Turkey by familiarity index: Informational and experiential dimensions. Tourism Management, 22(2), 127-133.
    Baloglu, S., & Bringnerg, D. (1997). Affective images of tourism destination. Journal of Travel Research, 22, 1-9.
    Baloglu, S., & McCleary, K. (1999a). A model of destination image formation. Annals of Tourism Research, 26, 868-897.
    Baloglu, S., & McCleary, K. (1999b). US international pleasure travellers’ images of four Mediterranean destinations: A comparison of visitors and non visitors. Journal of Travel Research, 38, 114-129.
    Basala, S., & Klenosky, D. (2001). Travel style preferences for visiting a novel destination: A conjoint investigation across the novelty familiarity continuum. Journal of Travel Research, 40(2), 172-183.
    Beerli, A., & Martin, J. D. (2004). Factors influencing destination image. Annals of Tourism Research, 26, 868-897.
    Beirman, D. (2003). United States: September 11, 2001 terrorist attack. The impact on American and global tourism. In D. Beirman (Ed.), Restoring tourism destinations in crisis: A strategic marketing approach (pp. 43-68). Oxon: CABI Publishing.
    Bigne, J., Sanchez, M., & Sanchez, J. (2001). Tourism image, evaluation variables and after purchase behavior: Inter-relationships. Tourism Management, 22(6), 607-616.
    Blank, U. (1989). The community tourism industry imperative: The necessity, the opportunities, its potential. State College: Venture Publishing
    Blanke, J., Browne, C., Hanouz, M. D., Geiger, T., & Mia, I. (2009). The global competitiveness report 2009–2010. In K. Schwab (Ed.), World Economic Forum. Geneva: SRO-Kundig.
    Byrne, D., & Nelson, D. (1965). Attraction as a linear function of proportion of positive reinforcements. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1(6), 659-663.
    Carmines, Edward, G., & John, P. M. (1981). Analyzing models with unobserved variables: Analysis of covariance structures. In G. W., Bohmstedt & E. F. Borgatta (Eds.), Social Measurement (pp. 65-115). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
    Cavlek, N. (2002). Tour operators and destination safety. Journals of Tourism Research, 29(2), 478-496.
    Chen, P. J., & Kerstetter, D. L. (1999). International students' image of rural Pennsylvania as a travel destination. Journal of Travel Research, 37(3), 256-266.
    Cheron, E. J., & Ritchie, J. R. B. (1982). Leisure activities and perceived risk. Journal of Leisure Research, 14, 139-154.
    Chon, K. S. (1989). Understanding recreational travelers’ motivation, attitudes, and satisfaction. The Tourist Review, 44(1), 3-7.
    Chon, K. S. (1990). The role of destination image in tourism: A review and discussion. Revue du Tourisme, 2, 2-9.
    Chon, K. S. (1991). Tourism destination image modification process: Marketing implications. Tourism Management, 12, 68-72.
    Chon, K. S. (1992). The role of destination image in tourism: An extension. Revue du Tourisme, 1, 2-8.
    Christensen, J. E. (1983). An exposition of canonical correlation in leisure research. Journal of Leisure Research, 14(4), 311-322.
    Clark, T., & Pugh, D. S. (2001). Foreign country priorities in the internationalization process: a measure and an exploratory test on British firms. International Business Review, 10(3), 285–303.
    Crompton, J. (1979). Motivation for pleasure vacation. Annals of Tourism Research, 6(4), 408-424.
    Crompton, J. L. (1977). A systems model of the tourist's destination selection decision process with particular reference to the role of image and perceived constraints., Texas A&M University, College Station, TX.
    Crompton, J. L. (1992). Structure of vacation destination choice sets. Annals of Tourism Research, 19, 420-434.
    Crompton, J. L., & Ankomah, P. K. (1993). Choice set propositions in destination decision’s. Annals of Tourism Research, 20, 461-476.
    Crotts, J. C. (2004). The effect of cultural distance on overseas travel behaviors. Journal of Travel Research, 43, 83–88.
    Davidoff, P. G., & Davidoff, D. S. (1983). Sales and marketing for travel and tourism. Rapid City: National Publishers.
    Dichter, E. (1985). What is in an image? Journal of Consumer Marketing, 2, 39-52.
    Din, K. (1989). Islam and tourism: Patterns, issues and option. Annals of Tourism Research, 16, 542-563.
    Dowling, G. R. (1986). Perceived risk: The concept and its measurement. Psychology and Marketing, 3, 193-210.
    Dybka, J. (1988). Overseas travel to Canada: New research on the perceptions and preferences of the pleasure travel market. Journal of Travel Research, 26(4), 12-15.
    Echtner, C., & Ritchie, J. (1991). The meaning and measurement of destination image. The Journal of Tourism Studies, 2(2), 2-12.
    Echtner, C. M., & Ritchie, J. R. B. (1993). The measurement of destination image: An empirical assessment. Journal of Travel Research, 31(4), 3-13.
    Enders, W., Sandier, T., & Parise, G. F. (1992). An econometric analysis of the impact of terrorism on tourism. Kyklos, 45, 531-554.
    Evans, J. R., & Berman, B. (1992). Marketing (6th ed.). New York: MacMillan.
    Fan, X., Thompson, B., & Wang, L. (1999). Effects of sample size, estimation method, and model specification on structural equation modeling fit indexes. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(56-83).
    Fuchs, G., & Reichel, A. (2006). Tourist destination risk perception: The case of Israel. Journal of Hospitality & Leisure Marketing, 14(2), 83-108.
    Gartner, W. C. (1989). Tourism image: Attribute measurement of state tourism products using multidimensional scaling techniques. Journal of Travel Research, 28(2), 16-20.
    Gartner, W. C. (1993). Image formation process. In M. Uysal & D. Fesenmaier (Eds.), Communication and channel systems in tourism marketing (pp. 191-215). New York: Haworth Press.
    Gartner, W. C. (1996). Tourism development: Principles, policies, and policies. New York: Van Nostram Reinhold.
    Gemunden, H. G. (1985). Perceived risk and information search. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 2, 79-100.
    George, G., & Mallery, P. (2003). SPSS for windows step by step: A simple guide and reference, 11.0 update. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
    Glaesser, D. (2003). Crises’ spheres of activity. Crisis management in the tourism industry. Burlington, MA: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
    Gunn, C. (1972). Vacationscape. Washington: Taylor and Francis / University of Texas.
    Haahti, A. J. (1986). Finland’s competitive position as a destination. Annals of Tourism Research, 13, 11-35.
    Hair, J. F. J., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (5th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
    Hall, C., & O'Sullivan, V. (1996). Tourism, political stability and violence. In A. Pizam & Y. Mansfeld (Eds.), Tourism, crime and international security issues. Chichester: Wiley.
    Henderson, J. C. (2003). Managing tourism and Islam in Peninsular Malaysia. Tourism Management, 24, 447-456.
    Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills: Sage.
    Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
    Hunt, J. D. (1975). Image as a factor in tourism development. Journal of Travel Research, 13(3), 1-7.
    Ioannides, D., & Apostolopoulos, Y. (1999). Political instability, war, and tourism in Cyprus: E!ects, management, and prospects for recovery. Journal of Travel Research, 38(1), 51-56.
    Irvine, W., & Anderson, A. R. (2006). The effect of disaster on peripheral tourism places and the disaffection of prospective visitors. In Y. Mansfeld & A. Pizam (Eds.), Tourism, security & safety: From theory to practice (pp. 169-186). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
    Jackson, M. (2001). Cultural influences on tourist destination choices of 21pacific rim nations. Paper presented at the CAUTHE national research conference.
    Jacoby, J., & Kaplan, L. B. (1972). The components of perceived risk. Paper presented at the Proceedings, 3rd Annual Conference, Chicago.
    Jenkins, O. H., & McArthur, S. (1996). Marketing protected areas. Australian Parks and Recreation, 32(4), 10-15.
    Kaplan, L. B., Szybillo, G. J., & Jacoby, J. (1974). Components of perceived risk in product purchase: A cross-validation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 59, 287-291.
    Kim, H., & Richardson, S. L. (2003). Motion picture impacts on destination images. Annals of Tourism Research, 30(1), 216-237.
    Kluckhohn, C. (1951). The study of culture. In D. Lerner & H. D. Lasswell (Eds.), The policy sciences (pp. 86–101). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
    Kozak, M. (2001). Repeaters’ behavior at two distinct destinations. Annals of Tourism Research, 28(3), 784-807.
    Laws, E., & Prideaux, B. (2005). Crisis management: A suggested typology. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 19(2/3), 1-8.
    Lawson, F., & Baud-Bovy, M. (1977). Tourism and recreational development. London: Architectural Press.
    Lee, C., Lee, Y., & Lee, B. (2005). Korea’s destination image formed by the 2002 world cup. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(4), 839-858.
    Lepp, A., & Gibson, H. (2003). Tourist roles, perceived risk and international tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 30(3), 606-624.
    Levy, S. J. (1978). Marketplace behaviour—its meaning for management. New York: AMACOM.
    Linton, R. (1945). The cultural background of personality. Appleton-Century: New York, 21.
    Lumsdon, L. (1997). Tourism marketing. Oxford: International Thompson Business Press.
    MacCrimmon, K. P., & Wehrung, D. A. (1986). Taking risks. New York: The Free Press.
    Mansfeld, Y. (1992). From motivation to actual travel. Annals of Tourism Research, 19, 399-419.
    Mansfeld, Y. (2006). The role of security information in tourism crisis management: the missing link. In Y. Mansfeld & A. Pizam (Eds.), Tourism, security & safety from theory to practice. Burlington, MA: Elsevier, Butterworth-Heinemann.
    Martinez-Zarzoso, I. (2003). Gravity model: An application to trade between regional blocs. Atlantic Economic Journal, 31(2), 174-188.
    Maser, B., & Weiermair, K. (1998). Travel decision-making: From the vintage point of perceived risk and information preferences. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 7(4), 107-121.
    Mayo, E. J. (1973). Regional images and regional travel destination. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Conference of Travel and Tourism Research Association, Salt Lake City UT.
    McKercher, B., & Cros, H. D. (2003). Testing a cultural tourism typology. International Journal of Tourism Research, 5(1), 45-58.
    Milman, A., & Pizam, A. (1995). The role of awareness and familiarity with a destination: The central Florida case. Journal of Travel Research, 33(3), 21-27.
    Nebenzahl, I. D., Jaffe, E. D., & Usunier, J.-C. (2003). Personifying country-of-origin research. Management International Review, 43(4), 383-406.
    O’Leary, S., & Deegan, J. (2003). People, pace, place: Qualitative and quantitative images of Ireland as a tourism destination in France. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 9(3), 213-226.
    OTD. (2009). Tourist arrivals in Thailand. Retrieved Dec 5, 2009, from http://www.tourism.go.th/2009/th/statistic/tourism.php
    Pacific Asia Travel Association, P. (1995). Tracking Asian outbound travel trends. Travel Industry Monitor, 63, 4-6.
    Pike, S., & Ryan, C. (2004). Destination positioning analysis through a comparison of cognitive, affective, and conative perceptions. Journal of Travel Research, 42(4), 333-342.
    Pizam, A. (1999). A comprehensive approach to classifying acts of crime and violence at tourism destinations. Journal of Travel Research, 38(1), 5-12.
    Pizam, A. (2002). Editorial: Tourism and terrorism. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 21, 1-3.
    Pizam, A., & Fleischer, A. (2002). Severity versus frequency of acts of terrorism: which has a larger impact on tourism demand? Journal of Travel Research, 40, 337-339.
    Pizam, A., & Jeong, G. (1996). Cross-cultural tourist behavior: Perceptions of Korean tour-guides. Tourism Management, 17(4), 277-286.
    Poolprasert, N. (2009). The impact of political instability, destination image, and cultural distance on tourist's intention to revisit or recommend: An example of Bangkok. National Cheng Kung University, Tainan.
    Proshonsky, H. M., Fabian, A. K., & Kaminoff, R. (1983). Place-identity: Physical world socialization of the self. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 3, 57-83.
    Reichel, A., Fuchs, G., & Uriely, N. (2007). Perceived risk and the non-institutionalized tourist role: The case of Israeli student ex-backpackers. Journal of Travel Research, 46(3), 217-226.
    Reisinger, Y., & Turner, L. (1998). Cultural differences between Mandarinspeaking tourists and Australian hosts and their impact on cross-cultural tourist–host interaction. Journal of Business Research, 42(2), 175-187.
    Richter, L., & Waugh, W. (1986). Terrorism and tourism as logical companions. Tourism Management, 7, 230-238.
    Ritter, W. (1987). Styles of tourism in the modern world. Tourism Recreation Research, 12(1), 3-8.
    Robinson, M., & Boniface, P. (1999). Tourism and cultural conflicts. Wallingford: CABI Publishing.
    Roehl, W., & Fesenmaier, D. (1992). Risk perceptions and pleasure travel: An exploratory analysis. Journal of Travel Research, 2(4), 17-26.
    Scott, D. R., Schewe, C. D., & Frederick, D. G. (1978). A multi-brand/multi-attribute model of tourist state choice. Journal of Travel Research, 17(3), 23-29.
    Seddighi, H., M. Nuttall, & Theocharous, A. (2001). Does cultural background of tourists influence the destination choice? an empirical study with special reference to political instability. Tourism Management, 22, 181-191.
    Sheldon, P. J., & Fox, M. (1988). The role of foodservice in vacation choice and experience: A cross-cultural analysis. Journal of Travel Research, 27(2), 9-16.
    Shenkar, O. (2001). Cultural distance revisited: Toward a more rigorous conceptualization and measurement of cultural differences. Journal of International Business Studies, 32(3), 519–536.
    Sherry, J. F. (1986). The cultural perspective in consumer research. Advances in Consumer Research, 13, 573–575.
    Shoemaker, S. (1994). Segmenting the U.S. travel market according to benefits realized. Journal of Travel Research, 32(3), 8-21.
    Slovic, P. (1972). Convergent validation of risk taking specificity and the generality of risk taking behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 22, 128-134.
    Sommez, S., Apostolopoulos, Y., & Tarlow, P. (1999). Tourism in crisis: Managing the effects of terrorism. Journal of Travel Research, 38, 13-18.
    Sonmez, S., & Graefe, A. (1998a). Determining future travel behavior from past travel experience and perceptions of risk and safety. Journal of Travel Research, 37(4), 171-177.
    Sonmez, S., & Graefe, A. (1998b). Influence of terrorism risk on foreign tourism decisions. Annals of Tourism Research, 25, 112-144.
    Sonmez, S. F. (1998). Tourism, terrorism, and political instability. Annals of Tourism Research, 25, 416-456.
    Spradley, J. P., & Philips, M. (1972). Culture and stress: A quantitative analysis. American Anthropologist, 74, 518-529.
    Stabler, M. (1990). The concept of opportunity sets as a methodological framework for the analysis of selling tourism places: The industry view. In C. Cooper, J. Fletcher, D. ilbert & S. Wanhill (Eds.), Marketing tourism places (pp. 23-41). London: Routledge.
    Tahir, R., & Larimo, J. (2004). Understanding the location strategies of European Firms in Asian Countries. Journal of the American Academy of Business, 5(1/2), 102-109.
    Tarlow, P. E. (2006a). A social theory of terrorism and tourism. In Y. Mansfeld & A. Pizam (Eds.), Tourism, security, & safety from theory to practice (pp. 33-48). Burlington, MA: Elsevier-Butterworth-Heinemann.
    Tarlow, P. E. (2006b). Terrorism and tourism. In J. Wilks, D. Pendergast & P. Leggat (Eds.), Tourism in turbulent times towards safe experiences for visitors (pp. 80-92). Oxford: Elsevier.
    Tasci, A. D. A., & Gartner, C. W. (2007). Destination image and its functional relationships. Journal of Travel Research, 45(5), 413-425.
    TAT. (2009). Awards won by Thailand. Retrieved Sep, 2009, from http://www.tatnews.org/tourism_news/awards_won.asp
    Telisman-Kosuta, N. (1989). Tourism destination image. In S. F. Witt & L. Moutinho (Eds.), Tourism Marketing and Management Handbook (pp. 557-561). Cambridge: Prentice Hall.
    Telisman-Kosuta, N. (1994). Tourism destination image. In S. Witt & L. Moutinho (Eds.), Tourism marketing and management handbook (pp. 557-561). Hempel Hempstead: Prentice-Hall.
    UNWTO. (2009). Tourism Highlights. Retrieved Sep 20, 2009, from http://www.unwto.org/facts/eng/highlights.htm
    Urn, S., & Crompton, J. L. (1990). Attitude determinants in tourism destination choice. Annals of Tourism Research, 17, 432-448.
    Urn, S., & Crompton, J. L. (1992). The roles of perceived inhibitors and facilitators in pleasure travel destination decisions. Journal of Travel Research, 30(3), 18-25.
    Uysal, M., & Hagan, L. (1993). Motivations for pleasure travel and tourism. In M. Khan, M. Olsen & T. Var (Eds.), Encyclopedia of hospitality and tourism (pp. 798–810). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
    Uysal, M., & Jurowski, C. (1993). An empirical testing of the push and pull factors of tourist motivations. Annals of Tourism Research, 21(4), 844-846.
    Walmsley, D., & Young, M. (1998). Evaluative images and tourism: The use of personal constructs to describe the structure of destination images. Journal of Travel Research, 36(3), 65-69.
    Watson, J. J., & Wright, K. (2000). Consumer ethnocentrism and attitudes toward domestic and foreign products. European Journal of Marketing, 34(9/10), 1149–1160.
    Wilks, J., & Page, S. (2006). Current status of tourist health and safety. In J. Wilks & D. Page (Eds.), Managing tourist health and safety in the new millennium (pp. 3-18). Oxford: Pergamon.
    Woodside, A. G., & Lysonski, S. (1989). A general model of traveler destination choice. Journal of Travel Research, 17( 4), 8-14.
    WTTC. (2009a). Pakistan travel and tourism. Retrieved Nov 11, 2009, from http://www.wttc.org/eng/Tourism_Research/Tourism_Economic_Research/Country_Reports/Pakistan/
    WTTC. (2009b). Thailand travel and tourism. Retrieved Sep 25, 2009, from http://www.wttc.org/eng/Tourism_Research/Tourism_Economic_Research/Country_Reports/Thailand/
    Yavas, U. (1987). Correlates of vacation travel: Some empirical evidence. Journal of Professional Services Marketing, 5(2), 3-18.
    Zeithaml, V. A. (1981). How consumer evaluation processes differ between goods and services. In M. o. Services, J. H. Donnelly & W. R. George (Eds.) (pp. 186-190). Chicago: American Marketing Association.

    下載圖示 校內:2015-07-27公開
    校外:2015-07-27公開
    QR CODE