About half of the world’s luxury consumption market is estimated to come from East Asia. Because individuals scoring high on narcissism as a personality trait are attractive targets for luxury brands and because of the importance of face consciousness in predicting and explaining East Asian consumers’ consumption behavior, this research aims to further investigate the relationships between narcissism, face consciousness and non-functional luxury demand in a East Asian context. An online questionnaire was spread among Taiwanese luxury consumers, in order to measure two different dimensions of narcissism, face consciousness and non-functional luxury demand. The research’s result show that overt narcissism has a stronger effect on snob luxury consumption than covert narcissism. Also, one’s desire to gain face has a strong predicting power of one’s snob luxury consumption tendencies. A fear of losing face on the other hand is strongly related to one’s likeliness to engage in bandwagon luxury consumption. Finally, desire to gain face was found to fully mediate the positive relationship between overt narcissism and snob luxury consumption and also fear of losing face was found to fully mediate the positive relationship between covert narcissism and bandwagon luxury consumption. At the end of this research, both its results’ theoretical and managerial implications are discussed.

Aaker, J. L. (1997). Dimensions of brand personality. Journal of Marketing Research, 34(3), 347–356.
Abe, S., Bagozzi, R. P., & Sadarangani, P. (1996). An investigation of construct validity and generalizability of the self-concept. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 8(3–4), 97–123.
Acunzo, A. (2014). Here’s why Singapore is a shining beacon in Luxury Asia. Retrieved May 27, 2020, from Singapore Business Review website: https://sbr.com.sg/economy/commentary/heres-why-singapore-shining-beacon-in-luxury-asia
Adams, R. (2011). The utility of prestige: Chinese and American hedonic ratings of prestige goods. Journal of Global Marketing, 24(4), 287–304.
Albright, S. C., & Winston, W. L. (2014). Business analytics: Data analysis & decision making (5th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Ames, D. R., Rose, P., & Anderson, C. P. (2006). The NPI-16 as a short measure of narcissism. Journal of Research in Personality, 40(4), 440–450.
Anchor, R., & Berry, C. J. (1994). The idea of luxury: A conceptual and historical investigation. In The American Historical Review (Vol. 101).
Bagozzi, R. P., & Dholakia, U. M. (2006). Antecedents and purchase consequences of customer participation in small group brand communities. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 23, 45–61.
Bain & Company. (2019a). Luxury goods worldwide market study 2018. Retrieved from https://www.bain.com/insights/luxury-goods-worldwide-market-study-fall-winter-2018/
Bain & Company. (2019b). What’s powering China’s market for luxury goods?
Bank, T. W. (2019). China GDP. Retrieved September 20, 2020, from https://data.worldbank.org/country/china
Bao, Y., Zhou, K. Z., & Su, C. (2003a). Face consciousness and risk aversion: Do they affect consumer decision-making? Psychology and Marketing, 20(8), 733–755.
Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Narcissism as addiction to esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 12(4), 206–210.
Belk, R. W. (1985). Materialism: Trait aspects of living in the material world. Journal of Consumer Research, 12, 265–280.
Belk, R. W. (1988). Possessions and the extended self. Journal of Consumer Research, 15(2), 139–168.
Black, J. (1997). A dictionary of economics (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Bradlee, P. M., & Emmons, R. A. (1992). Locating narcissism within the interpersonal circumplex and the five-factor model. Personality and Individual Differences, 13(7), 821–830.
Brehm, J. W. (1972). Responses to loss of freedom: A theory of psychological reactance. General Learning Press.
Campbell, K. W., & Foster, J. D. (2007). The narcissistic self: Background, an extended agency model, and ongoing controversies. Frontiers in Psychology, 115–138.
Campbell, K. W., & Miller, J. D. (2011). The handbook of narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder. In John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Cha, Y., & Kwon, Y. (2018). Why Korean young women consumers buy luxury goods? The influence of cultural orientation and media use. The East Asian Journal of Business Management, 8(2), 23–32.
Chandran, N. (2014). Forget China, this is the next big luxury market. Retrieved May 27, 2020, from CNBC website: https://www.cnbc.com/2014/09/24/forget-china-this- is-asias-new-luxury-market.html
Chao, L., & Myers, R. H. (1998). China’s consumer revolution: the 1990s and beyond. Journal of Contemporary China, 7(18), 351–368.
Chaudhuri, H. R., & Majumdar, S. (2006). Of diamonds and desires: Understanding conspicuous consumption from a contemporary marketing perspective. Academy of Marketing Science, 11, 1–18.
Chen, J., & Kim, S. (2013). A comparison of Chinese consumers’ intentions to purchase luxury fashion brands for self-use and for gifts. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 25(1), 29–44.
Chen, S., & Sethi, A. (2007). Luxury looks east. Brand Strategy, 213, 56–58.
Chen, Y.-Q., Zhu, H., Le, M., & Wu, Y.-Z. (2014). The effect of face consciousness on consumption of counterfeit luxury goods. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 42(6), 1007–1014.
Chipp, K., Kleyn, N., & Manzi, T. (2011). Catch up and keep up: Relative deprivation and conspicuous consumption in an emerging market. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 23(2), 117–134.
Choi, E., Hong, K., & Lee, Y. (2010). Korean consumers’ perceptions toward luxury products. Journal of Fashion Business, 14(5), 195–215.
Christodoulides, G., Michaelidou, N., & Li, C. H. (2009). Measuring perceived brand luxury: An evaluation of the BLI scale. Journal of Brand Management, 16(5–6), 395–405.
Chritrakorn, K. (2019). Inside Japan’s cutting-edge luxury retailers. Retrieved May 26, 2020, from https://www.voguebusiness.com/consumers/japan-luxury-retailers-restir-gr8-four-eyed-dover-street-market
Coumau, J. B., Durand-Servoingt, B., Kim, A., & Yamakawa, N. (2017). Changing channels landscape to satisfy Japanese luxury consumers’ appetite for novelty.
Degen, R. J. (2009). Opportunity for luxury brands in China.
Deloitte. (2019). Global powers of luxury hoods 2019: Bridging the gap between the old and the new.
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). (2013). American Psychological Institution.
Dickinson, K. A., & Pincus, A. L. (2003). Interpersonal analysis of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. Journal of Personality Disorders, 17(3), 188–207.
Dubois, B., & Czellar, S. (2002). Prestige brands or luxury brands? An exploratory inquiry on consumer perceptions. In Brand Management Track.
Dubois, B., & Duquesne, P. (1993). The market for luxury goods: Income vs culture. European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 27, pp. 35–44.
Eastman, J. K., Goldsmith, R. E., & Flynn, L. R. (1999). Status consumption in consumer behavior: Scale development and validation. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 7(3), 41–52.
Emmons, R. (1984). Factor analysis and construct validity of the narcissistic personality inventory. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48(4), 291–300.
Fang, T. (1998). Chinese business negotiation style. SAGE Publications.
Fastoso, F., Bartikowski, B., & Wang, S. (2018). The “little emperor” and the luxury brand: How overt and covert narcissism affect brand loyalty and proneness to buy counterfeits. Psychology and Marketing, 35(7), 522–532.
Field, A. (2005). Discovering statistics using SPSS (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications.
Foster, J. D., & Trimm, R. F. (2008). On being eager and uninhibited: Narcissism and approach-avoidance motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(7), 1004–1017.
Freud, S. (1961). Beyond the pleasure principal, in the standard edition of the complete psychological work of Sigmund Freud. Hogarth Press.
Fromkin, H. L., Olson, J. C., Dipboye, R. L., & Barnaby, D. (1971). A commodity theory analysis of consumer preferences for scarce products. Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, 653–654.
Gao, L. M., Zhang, N. Z.-M., & To, C. K.-M. (2009). Potential niche markets for luxury fashion goods in China. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 13(4), 514–526.
Gardiner, S., King, C., & Grace, D. (2012). Travel decision making: An empirical examination of generational values, attitudes and intentions. Journal of Travel Research, 52(3), 310–324.
Global economics view. (2011). New York, NY.
Gold, A. H., Malhotra, A., & Segars, A. H. (2001). Knowledge management: An organizational capabilities perspective. Journal of Management Information Systems, 18(1), 185–214.
Goody, J. (2006). From misery to luxury. Social Science Information, 45(3), 341–348.
Group, O. B. (2013). The luxury market: The ups and downs of growing demand for high-end retail. Retrieved from https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/analysis/luxury-market-ups-and-downs-growing-demand-high-end-retail
Guadagnoli, E., & Velicer, W. F. (1988). Relation of sample size to the stability of component patterns. Psychological Bulletin, 103(2), 265–275.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2014). Multivariate data analysis (MVDA) (7th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.
Harman, H. H. (1976). Modern factor analysis (3rd ed.). The University of Chicago Press.
Harnish, R. J., & Bridges, K. R. (2015). Compulsive buying: The role of irrational beliefs, materialism and narcissism. Journal of Rational - Emotive and Cognitive - Behavior Therapy, 33(1).
He, Y., Zou, D., & Jin, L. (2010). Exploiting the goldmine: A lifestyle analysis of affluent Chinese consumers. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 27(7), 615–628.
Hendin, H. M., & Cheek, J. M. (1997). Assessing hypersensitive narcissism: A reexamination of Murray’s narcism scale. Journal of Research in Personality, 31(4), 588–599.
Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sinkovics, R. R. (2009). The use of partial least squares path modeling in international marketing. Advances in International Marketing, 20(2009), 277–319.
Ho, D. Y. (1976). On the concept of face. American Journal of Sociology, 81(4), 867–884.
Hofstede, G., & Bond, M. H. (1988). The Confucius connection: From cultural roots. Organizational Dynamics, 16(4), 4–21.
Horiuchi, Y. (1984). A systems anomaly: Consumer decision-making process for luxury goods. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation.
Horton, R. S., & Sedikides, C. (2009). Narcissistic responding to ego threat: When the status of the evaluator matters. Journal of Personality, 77(5), 1493–1525.
Hotchkiss, S., & Masterson, J. (2003). Why is it always about you? Free Press.
Hu, W., & Grove, C. (1999). Encountering the Chinese: A Guide for Americans (2nd ed.). Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
Hwang, K. K. (2006). Moral face and social face: Contingent self-esteem in Confucian society. International Journal of Psychology, 41(4), 276–281.
Jauk, E., Weigle, E., Lehmann, K., Benedek, M., & Neubauer, A. C. (2017). The relationship between grandiose and vulnerable (hypersensitive) narcissism. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(SEP).
Jin, B., & Son, J. (2014). Face saving, materialism, and desire for unique apparel products: Differences among three Asian countries. Journal of the Textile Institute, 105(3), 304–313.
Joseph F. Hair, J., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C., & Sarstedt, M. (2016). A primer on Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). SAGE Publications.
Juan Li, J., & Su, C. (2007). How face influences consumption: A comparative study of American and Chinese consumers. International Journal of Market Research, 49(2), 237–256.
Kang, Y., & Park, S. (2016). The perfection of the narcissistic self : A qualitative study on luxury consumption and customer equity. Journal of Business Research, 69(9), 3813–3819.
Kapferer, J.-N. (2006). The two business cultures of luxury brands. In Brand Culture (1st ed., p. Chapter 4). Routledge.
Kastanakis, M. N. (2010). Explaining variation in luxury consumption. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation.
Kastanakis, M. N., & Balabanis, G. (2012). Between the mass and the class: Antecedents of the “bandwagon” luxury consumption behavior. Journal of Business Research, 65(10), 1399–1407.
Kastanakis, M. N., & Balabanis, G. (2014). Explaining variation in conspicuous luxury consumption: An individual differences’ perspective. Journal of Business Research, 67(10), 2147–2154.
Kim, J. Y., & Nam, S. H. (1998). The concept and dynamics of face: Implications for organizational behavior in Asia. Organization Science, 9(4), 522–534.
Kim, S. (2005). The study about masstige high-end products. Journal of Korean Society and of Clothing and Textiles, 77(4), 1381–1388.
Krizan, Z., & Johar, O. (2012). Envy divides the two faces of narcissism. Journal of Personality, 80(5), 1415–1451.
Ku, T. H., & Lin, T. L. (2018). Effects of luxury brand perceptions on brand attachment and purchase intention: A comparative analysis among consumers in China, Hong Kong and Taiwan. South African Journal of Business Management, 49(1), 1–9.
Lambert, A., & Desmond, J. (2013). Loyal now, but not forever! A study of narcissism and male consumer-brand relationships. Psychology & Marketing, 30(8), 690–706.
Lee, E., M. Edwards, S., Youn, S., & Yun, T. (2018). Understanding the moderating effect of motivational values on young consumers’ responses to luxury brands: A cross-cultural study of South Korea and the USA. Journal of Marketing Communications, 24(2), 103–124.
Lee, S. Y., Gregg, A. P., & Park, S. H. (2013). The person in the purchase: Narcissistic consumers prefer products that positively distinguish them. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105(2), 335–352.
Leibenstein, H. . (1950). Bandwagon , Snob , and Veblen Effects in the Theory of Consumers ’ Demand. The Quarterly Journal of Economics.
Li, G., Li, G., & Kambele, Z. (2012). Luxury fashion brand consumers in China: Perceived value, fashion lifestyle, and willingness to pay. Journal of Business Research, 65(10), 1516–1522.
Li, J. J., & Su, C. (2007). How face influences consumption A comparative study of American and Chinese consumers. International Journal of Market Research, 49(2), 237–256.
Li, J., Zhang, X. A., & Sun, G. (2015). Effects of “face” consciousness on status consumption among chinese consumers: Perceived social value as a mediator. Psychological Reports, 116(1), 280–291.
Liao, J., & Wang, L. (2009). Face as a mediator of the relationship between material value and brand consciousness. Psychology & Marketing, 26(11), 987–1001.
Lin, L., Xi, D., & Lueptow, R. M. (2013). Public face and private thrift in chinese consumer behaviour. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 37(5), 538–545.
Lin, Y. (1935). My country and my people (1st ed.). Reynal & Hitchcock.
Liu, S., Perry, P., & Gadzinski, G. (2019). The implications of digital marketing on WeChat for luxury fashion brands in China. Journal of Brand Management, 26(4), 395–409.
Liu, S., Perry, P., Moore, C., & Warnaby, G. (2016). The standardization-localization dilemma of brand communications for luxury fashion retailers’ internationalization into China. Journal of Business Research, 69(1), 357–364.
Lu, X. (2008). Elite China: Luxury consumer behavior in China. Singapore: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Luan, L., Kim, A., Zipser, D., Su, M., Lo, A., Chen, C., & Zhang, C. (2019). China luxury report 2019.
Luchner, A. F., Houston, J. M., Walker, C., & Alex Houston, M. (2011). Exploring the relationship between two forms of narcissism and competitiveness. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(6), 779–782.
Luxury fashion powerhouses rush into South Korean market. (2019). Retrieved May 27, 2020, from The Asian website: http://www.theasian.asia/archives/107047
Luxury Goods in South Korea. (2016). Euromonitor International.
Luxury Goods in South Korea. (2019). Euromonitor International.
Luxury goods worldwide market study 2013. (2013). Retrieved from https://recursos.anuncios.com/files/581/60.pdf
Lynn, M. (1991). Scarcity effects on value: A quantitative review of the commodity theory literature. Psychology and Marketing, 8(1), 45–57.
Mandel, N., Petrova, P. K., & Cialdini, R. B. (2006). Images of success and the preference for luxury brands. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 16(1), 57–69.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224–253.
Marshall, A. (1890). Principles of Economics (8th ed.). Macmillan.
Mason, R. S. (1981). Conspicuous consumption: A study of exceptional consumer behavior. Palgrave Macmillan.
Mccort, D. J., & Malhotra, N. K. (1993). Culture and consumer behavior. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 2(3), 91–127.
Merriam-Webster. (2019). Luxury. Retrieved from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/luxury
Miller, J. D., & Campbell, W. K. (2008). Comparing clinical and social-personality conceptualizations of narcissism. Journal of Personality, 76(3), 449–476.
Monkhouse, L. Le, Barnes, B. R., & Stephan, U. (2012). The influence of face and group orientation on the perception of luxury goods: A four market study of East Asian consumers. International Marketing Review, 29(6), 647–672.
Morf, C., & Rhodewalt, F. (2001). Expanding the dynamic self-regulatory processing model of narcissism: Research directions for the future. Psychological Inquiry, 12(4), 177–196.
Nago, M. (2019). Japan’s new luxury consumer. Retrieved May 27, 2020, from https://www.voguebusiness.com/consumers/japan-new-luxury-consumer-millennials
Ng, H. K. S., Tam, K. P., & Shu, T. M. (2011). The money attitude of covert and overt narcissists. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(2), 160–165.
Okonkwo, U. (2009). The luxury brand strategy challenge. Journal of Brand Management, 16(5/6), 287–289.
Oxford University Press. (2019). Luxury. Retrieved from Lexico website: https://www.lexico.com/definition/luxury
Pilch, I., & Górnik-Durose, M. E. (2017). Grandiose and vulnerable narcissism, materialism, money attitudes and consumption preferences. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 151(2), 185–206.
Pincus, A. L., & Roche, M. J. (2011). The handbook of narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Preacher, K. J., & Leonardelli, G. J. (2001). Calculation for the Sobel test: An interactive calculation tool for mediation tests.
Prendergast, G., & Wong, C. (2003). Parental influence on the purchase of luxury brands of infant apparel: An exploratory study in Hong Kong. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 20(2–3), 157–169.
Revik, J. O. (2001). Overt and Covert Narcissism: Turning Points and Mutative Elements in Two Psychotherapies. British Journal of Psychotherapy, 17(4), 435–447.
Richins, M. L. (1994). Special possessions and the expression of material values. Journal of Consumer Research, 21(3), 522.
Roach-Higgins, M. E., & Eicher, J. B. (1992). Dress and identity. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 10(4), 1–8.
Roberts, F. (2015a). Indonesia: A slow-burning luxury brand hotspot? Retrieved May 27, 2020, from Luxury Society website: https://www.luxurysociety.com/en/articles/2015/09/indonesia-a-slow-burning-luxury-brand-hotspot/
Roberts, F. (2015b). Taiwan: On the verge of luxury greatness? Retrieved May 26, 2020, from Luxury Society website: https://www.luxurysociety.com/en/articles/2015/12/taiwan-on-the-verge-of-luxury-greatness/
Rose, P. (2002). The happy and unhappy faces of narcissism. Personality and Individual Differences, 33(3), 379–391.
Rose, P. (2007). Mediators of the association between narcissism and compulsive buying: The roles of materialism and impulse control. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 21(4), 576–581.
Salehzadeh, R., & Pool, J. K. (2017). Brand attitude and perceived value and purchase intention toward global luxury brands. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 29(2), 74–82.
Sedikides, C., & Gregg, A. P. (2001). Narcissists and feedback: Motivational surfeits and motivational deficits. Psychological Inquiry, 12(4), 237–239.
Sedikides, C., Gregg, A. P., Cisek, S., & Hart, C. M. (2007). The I that buys: Narcissists as consumers. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 17(4), 254–257.
Sedikides, C., Rudich, E. A., Gregg, A. P., Kumashiro, M., & Rusbult, C. (2004). Are normal narcissists psychologically healthy?: Self-esteem matters. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(3), 400–416.
Shukla, P., & Purani, K. (2012). Comparing the importance of luxury value perceptions in cross-national contexts. Journal of Business Research, 65(10), 1417–1424.
Shukla, P., Singh, J., & Banerjee, M. (2015). They are not all same: variations in Asian consumers’ value perceptions of luxury brands. Marketing Letters, 26(3), 265–278.
Silverstein, M. J., & Fiske, N. (2003). Luxury for the Masses. Harvard Business Review, 81, 48–57.
So, J. T., Parsons, A. G., & Yap, S. F. (2013). Corporate branding, emotional attachment and brand loyalty: The case of luxury fashion branding. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 17(4), 403–423.
Soesilo, G. K., Anandya, D., & Indarini, M. (2019). The effect of e-mass customization in the dimension of consumer’s perceived value on satisfaction and loyalty of luxury brand consumers in Indonesia. 308(Insyma), 129–131.
Sun, G., Chen, J., & Li, J. (2017). Need for uniqueness as a mediator of the relationship between face consciousness and status consumption in China. International Journal of Psychology, 52(5), 349–353.
Tai, S. C., & Tam, J. M. (1996). A comparative study of Chinese consumers in Asian markets: A lifestyle analysis. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 9(1), 25–42.
Tan, A. (2012). gfk - Fashion Life - watches insight. Retrieved from http://www.gfkrt.com/imperia/md/images/gfkrtbenelux/diversen/gfk_watches_insight_sprin g2012.pdf
Ting-Toomey, S., & Kurogi, A. (1998). Facework competence in intercultural conflict: An updated face-negotiation theory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 22(2), 187–225.
Ting, M. S., Goh, Y. N., & Isa, S. M. (2018). Inconspicuous consumption of luxury fashion goods among Malaysian adults: An investigation. Global Business and Management Research: An International Journal, 10(1), 313.
Triandis, C. (1998). Vertical and horizontal individualism and collectivism: Theory and research implications for international comparative management. Advances in International Comparative Management, 12(7), 7–35.
Tsai, W. S., Yang, Q., & Liu, Y. (2013). Young Chinese consumers’ snob and bandwagon luxury consumption preferences. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 25(5), 290–304.
Tse, D. K. (1996). Understanding Chinese people as consumers: past findings and future propositions. Hong Kong, China: Oxford University Press.
Tse, D. K., Belk, R. W., & Zhou, N. (1989). Becoming a consumer society: A longitudinal and cross-cultural content analysis of print ads from Hong Kong, the People’s Republic of China and Taiwan. Journal of Consumer Research, 15(4), 457–472.
Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, K. W. (2009). The narcissism epidemic: Living in the age of entitlement. Atria Books.
Tynan, C., McKechnie, S., & Chhuon, C. (2010). Co-creating value for luxury brands. Journal of Business Research, 63(11), 1156–1163.
Veblen, T. (1899). The theory of the leisure class.
Velov, B., Gojković, V., & Dłurić, V. (2014). Materialism, narcissism and the attitude towards conspicuous consumption. Psihologija, 47(1), 113–129.
Verhallen, T. M. (1982). Scarcity and consumer choice behavior. Journal of Economic Psychology, 2(2), 299–321.
Verhallen, T. M., & Robben, H. S. (1994). Scarcity and preferency: An expirement on unavailability and product evaluation. Journal of Economic Psychology, 15(2), 315–331.
Vigneron, F., & Johnson, L. W. (1999). A review and a conceptual framework of prestige-seeking consumer behavior. 1, 1–15.
Wallack, L., & Montgomery, K. (1992). Advertising for all by the year 2000: Public health implications for less developed countries. Journal of Public Health Policy, 13(2), 204–223.
Wang, Y., Sun, S., & Song, Y. (2010). Motivation for luxury consumption: Evidence from a metropolitan city in China. In Research in Consumer Behavior (Vol. 12). Elsevier.
Wink, P. (1991). Two Faces of Narcissism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
Wong, N. Y., & Ahuvia, A. C. (1998). Personal taste and family face: Luxury consumption in Confucian and western societies. Psychology & Marketing, 15, 423–441.
Yan, J., & Sorenson, R. L. (2004). The influence of Confucian ideology on conflict in Chinese family business. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 4(1), 5–17.
Young, R. (2013). Malaysia revels in spending power. Retrieved May 27, 2020, from The New York Times website: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/22/fashion/Malaysia- Revels-in-Spending-Power.html
Yusof, A. (2020). High-income earners and expatriates to drive luxury retail sector. Retrieved May 27, 2020, from New Straits Times website: https://www.nst.com.my/business/2020/05/590222/high-income-earners-and-expatriates-drive-luxury-retail-sector
Zeigler-Hill, V., Clark, C. B., & Pickard, J. D. (2008). Narcissistic subtypes and contingent self-esteem: Do all narcissists base their self-esteem on the same domains? Journal of Personality, 76(4), 753–774.
Zhan, L., & He, Y. (2012). Understanding luxury consumption in China: Consumer perceptions of best-known brands. Journal of Business Research, 65(10), 1452–1460.
Zhang, B., & Kim, J. H. (2013). Luxury fashion consumption in China: Factors affecting attitude and purchase intent. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 20(1), 68–79.
Zhang, L., & Cude, B. J. (2018). Chinese consumers’ purchase intentions for luxury clothing: A comparison between luxury consumers and non-luxury consumers. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 30(5), 336–349.
Zhang, L., & Zhao, H. (2019). Personal value vs. luxury value: What are Chinese luxury consumers shopping for when buying luxury fashion goods? Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 51(September 2018), 62–71.
Zhang, X. A., Cao, Q., & Grigoriou, N. (2011). Consciousness of social face: The development and validation of a scale measuring desire to gain face versus fear of losing face. Journal of Social Psychology, 151(2), 129–149.