The integration of 3D printing in the construction industry is transforming traditional building practices by enabling automation, design flexibility, and reduced labor and material waste. However, the success of 3D printing in structural applications hinges on the development of advanced cementitious materials that offer not only good printability but also adequate mechanical strength and long-term durability. Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC), known for their superior ductility and strain-hardening behavior, show strong potential for 3D printing applications.
To overcome these limitations, this study investigates the effect of incorporating carbon nanofibers (CNF) into ECC and foamed ECC mixtures with different densities (1000, 1700, and 2077 kg/m³). CNF was selected as a nano-reinforcement agent due to its high tensile strength, high aspect ratio, and ability to improve the matrix microstructure and crack bridging capacity. Experimental work was conducted to evaluate both fresh and hardened properties of the mixtures. Fresh-state tests included mini-slump flow, flow retention, setting time, and a detailed rheological analysis using a rotational rheometer to assess yield stress and plastic viscosity. Hardened properties included compressive strength, tensile strength and pore structure. Finally, a 3D printing buildability test was performed to evaluate the structural stability of printed layers.
In the hardened state, mechanical performance was assessed through compressive strength and direct tensile strength testing at 7 and 28 days. The results revealed that CNF addition at an optimal dosage of 0.05% (by weight of cement) significantly improved tensile strength, ductility, and energy absorption capacity across all density levels, with the most pronounced effects observed in medium-density mixtures (1700 kg/m³). Microstructural analyses using Micro-CT confirmed that CNF contributed to matrix densification and pore size refinement. In the buildability test, CNF enhanced mixtures demonstrated better layer retention, reduced deformation, and higher build heights, particularly in the ECC and 1700 kg/m³ series, indicating improved structural integrity during the printing process.

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