本文藉由分析從1940年到1970年代間，內容是關於同性性傾向矯正治療的醫療專業期刊，來探討同性性傾向矯正治療的歷史，並藉此討論1973年之後「自我矛盾型同性情慾」(Ego-dystonic sexual orientation)的出現。從史料當中的分析，本文發現這些期刊文章中，接受同性性傾向矯正治療的患者，多數雖然被文章記述為自行就診，但從文章的脈絡與細節，發現可能與1950到1970年之間，對同性情慾充滿壓抑與歧視的社會氛圍有關係，當時的社會氛圍對同性戀者造成壓力，而使有些同性戀者就診希望改變性傾向。本文還從這些期刊文章中，注意到治療者對於同性情慾形成的理解，多傾向於認為是後天影響造成的，並因此認為同性性傾向是可以改變的，只要矯正引發同性情慾的原因就能改變性傾向；而對於是什麼樣的原因形成同性情慾，不少文章傾向於解釋是患者缺乏男性性別氣質。本文藉總結同性性傾向矯正治療歷史的發展脈絡，來討論1973年之後「自我矛盾型同性情慾」(Ego-dystonic sexual orientation)條目的出現，並認為該條目的出現，是由主張同性性傾向矯正治療者所促成，因此該條目的意涵，與1940年到1970年間，同性性傾向矯正治療的發展是有關聯的。

This study aimed to interpret the evolution of homosexual conversion therapy after the American Psychiatric Association (APA) depathologized homosexuality in 1973. To achieve this aim, the study explored the origin and development of homosexual conversion therapy by analyzing America’s medical contexts in the 1940s and 1970s. This study collected and analyzed medical articles published during the period, which were concerned with the treatment of homosexuality in attempts to change homosexual orientation.
The results indicated that due to the interaction between doctors and homosexuals, homosexual weren’t simply passive patients in the treatment of homosexual conversion therapy. The findings also showed that the origin of homosexual conversion therapy was associated with a new conceptual approach in medical profession, which defined homosexuality as acquired rather than inborn or hereditary sexual orientation. This new approach made the medical profession assume the possibility of altering sexual orientation.
The conclusion of the study was that homosexual conversion therapy developed in the 1940s and 1970s and reaching its heyday in the 1970s resulted in the classification of Ego-dystonic sexual orientation in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), just after the APA decided to depathologize homosexuality. This development indicated that homosexual conversion therapy involved the belief that homosexuality was associated with mental illness because homosexuality was perceived as acquired sexual orientation. Thus, homosexual people’s intention to change sexual orientation would be considered a form of mental disorders and could seek treatment.

第一節 史料

(一) 史料集

Katz, Jonathan. Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A. New York: A Meridian Book, 1992, pp. 129-207.

Weinberg, Martin., Bell, Alan., eds. Homosexuality: An annotated bibliography. New York: Harper & Row, 1972, pp.273-339.

(二) 醫療期刊(依年代排序)

Shaw, John., Ferris, G. “Perverted Sexual Instinct,” The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol. 10, No. 2, 1883, p. 185-204.

Blumer, Alder. “A Case of Perverted Sexual Instinct,” American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 39, No. 1, 1882, pp. 22-35.

Prince, Morton. “Sexual perversion or vice? A pathological and therapeutic inquiry,” The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol. 25, No. 4, 1898, pp. 237-256.

Brill, Abraham. “The conception of homosexuality,” Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 61, No. 5, 1913, pp. 335-340.

Kiernan, James. “Sexology,” Urologic and Cutaneous Review, Vol. 19, No. 5, 1915, pp. 287-291.

William, Max. “Breaking up a homosexual fixation by the conditioned reaction technique: A case study,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 32, No. 11, 1935, p734.

Cason, Hulsey., Pescor, M. “A Statistical Study of 500 Psychopathic Prisoners” Public Health Reports, Vol. 61, No. 16, 1946, pp. 557-574.

Henry, George., Galbraith, Hugh. “Constitutional factors in homosexuality,” American journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 90, No. 6, 1934, pp. 1249-1270.

Barahal, Hyman. “Testosterone in psychotic male homosexuals,” Psychiatric Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1940, pp. 319-330.

Rado, Sandor. “A critical examination of the concept of bisexuality,” Psychosomatic Medicine, Vol.2, No.4, 1940, p. 459-467.

Rosenzweig, Saul., Hoskins, G. “A note on the Ineffectualness of Sex-Hormone Medication in a Case of Pronounced Homosexuality,” Psychosomatic Medicine, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1941, pp. 87-89.

Glass, Samuel., Roswell, Johnson. “Limitations and complications of organotherapy in male homosexuality,” The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology, Vol. 4, No. 11. 1944, pp. 540-544.

Poe, John. “The successful treatment of a 40-year old passive homosexual based on an adaptational view of sexual behavior,” Psychoanalytic Review, Vol. 39, No. 1, 1952, pp. 23-33.

Hemphill, R. “Endocrine treatment in psychiatry,” The British Medical Journal, Vol. 1, No. 4912, 1955, pp. 501-504.

Kolb, Lawrence., Johnson. Adelaide. “Etiology and therapy of overt homosexuality,” The Psychoanalytic Quarterly, Vol. 24, No. 4, 1955, pp. 506-515.

Ellis, Albert. “The effectiveness of psychotherapy with individuals who have severe homosexual problems,” Journal of Consulting Psychology, Vol. 20, No. 3, 1956, pp. 191-165.

Ellis, Albert. “A homosexual treated with rational psychotherapy,” Journal of Clinical Psychology, Vol. 15, No. 3, 1959, p.338.

Curran, Desmond., Parr, Denis. “Homosexuality: An analysis of 100 male cases seen in private practice,” British Medical Journal, Vol. 1, No. 5022, 1957, p. 797-801.

Bowman, Karl., Engle, Bernice. “Sex Offenses: The Medical and Legal Implications of Sex Variations,” Law and Contemporary Problems, Vol. 25, No. 2, 1960, pp. 292-308.

Hadfield, James. “The cure of homosexuality,” British Medical Journal, Vol.1, No. 5083, 1958, pp. 1323-1326.

Freund, Kurt. “Some problems in the treatment of homosexuality,” in Hans Eysenck, eds., Behaviour therapy and the neuroses (Oxford, London, New York and Paris: Pergamon Press, I960). pp. 312-326.

Stevenson, Ian., Wolpe, Joseph. “Recovery from sexual deviations through overcoming non-sexual neurotic responses,” American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol.116, No.8, 1960, p. 738.

Stanley, Rachman, “Sexual disorders and behavior therapy,” American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 118, No.3, 1961, pp. 235-240.

Cabeen, Charles., Coleman, James. “The Selection of Sex-
Offender Patients for Group Psychotherapy,” International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, Vol. 12, No. 3, 1962, pp. 326-334.

James, Basil. “Case of homosexuality treated by aversion therapy,” British medical journal, Vol. 1, No. 5280, 1962, pp. 768-770.

Miller, Michael. “Hypnotic-aversion treatment of homosexuality,” Journal of the National Medical Association, Vol. 55, No. 5, 1963, pp. 411-436.

Ovesey, Lionel., Willard, Gaylin., Herbert, Hendin. “Psychotherapy of male homosexuality: Psychodynamic formulation,” Archives of general psychiatry, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1963, pp. 19-31.

Buki, Rudolph. “The use of psychotropic drugs in the rehabilitation of sex-deviated criminals,” American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 120, No. 12, 1964, pp. 1170-1175.

Feldman, M., MacCulloch, M. “A systematic approach to the treatment of homosexuality by conditioned aversion: Preliminary report,” American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 121, No.2, 1964, pp. 167-171.

Gold, S., Neufeld, I. “A learning approach to the treatment of homosexuality,” Behaviour Research and Therapy, Vol. 2, No. 2-4, 1964, pp. 201-204.

Rachman, Stanley. “Pain-Elicited Aggression and Behaviour Therapy,” The Psychological Record, Vol. 15, 1965, pp. 465-467.

Abarbanel-Brandt, Albert. “Homosexuals in Hypnotherapy,” The Journal of Sex Research, Vol. 2, No. 2, 1966, pp. 127-132.

Mintz, Elizabeth. “Overt male homosexuals in combined group and individual treatment,” Journal of Consulting Psychology, Vol. 30, No.3, 1966, pp. 193-198.

Mather, V., Northage, J. “The treatment of homosexuality by aversion therapy,” Medicine, Science and the Law, Vol. 6, No.4, 1966, pp. 200-205.

Cautela, Joseph. “Covert sensitization,” Psychological Reports, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1967, pp. 459-468.

Leo, Alexander. “Psychotherapy of Sexual Deviation with the Aid of Hypnosis,”
American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, Vol. 9, No. 3, 1967, pp. 181-183.

MacCulloch, M., Feldman, Michael. “Aversion therapy in management of 43 homosexuals,” British Medical Journal, Vol. 2, No. 5552, 1967, pp. 594-597.

Northage, Mather. “The treatment of homosexuality by aversion therapy,” Medicine, Science and the Law, Vol.6, No. 4, 1966, pp. 200-205.

Toby, Bieber, “On treating male homosexuals,’ Archives of general psychiatry, Vol.16, No.1, 1967, pp. 60-63.

Bartholomew, A. “A long-acting phenothiazine as a possible agent to control deviant sexual behavior,” American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 124, No.7, 1968, pp. 917-923.

Bancroft, J., Marks, I. “Electric aversion therapy of sexual deviations,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine. Vol. 61, No. 8, 1968, pp. 796–799.

Fox, Beatrice., William, J. “An exploratory study in the treatment of homosexuality by combining principles from psychoanalytical theory and conditioning: Theoretical and methodological considerations,” British Journal of Medical Psychology, Vol. 41, 1968, pp. 273-282.

Levin, Saul., Hirsch, Irwin., Shugar, Gerald; Kapche, Robert. “Treatment of homosexuality and heterosexual anxiety with avoidance conditioning and systematic desensitization: Data and case report,” Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1968, pp. 160-168.

William, Di Scipio, “Modified progressive desensitization and homosexuality,” British Journal of Medical Psychology, Vol. 41, No. 3, 1968, pp. 267-272.

Jolande, Jacobi. “A case of homosexuality,” Journal of Analytical Psychology, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1969, pp. 48-64.

Barlow, H., Leitenberg, H., Agras S. “Experimental control of sexual deviation through manipulation of the noxious scene in covert sensitization,” Journal of abnormal psychology, Vol. 74, No.5, 1969, pp.597-601.

Kraft, Tom. “Desensitization and the treatment of sexual disorders,” Journal of Sex research, Vol. 5, No.2, 1969, pp. 130-134.

Larson, Donald. “An adaptation of the Feldman and MacCulloch approach to treatment of homosexuality by the application of anticipatory avoidance learning,” Behaviour research and therapy, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1970, pp. 209-210.

Fort, Joel., Steiner, Claude., Conrad, Florence. “Attitudes of mental health professionals toward homosexuality and its treatment,” Psychological reports, Vol. 29, No. 2, 1971, pp. 347-350.

Hoffman, Martin. “Psychotherapy with homosexuals,” Professional Psychology, Vol. 2, No. 4, 1971, pp. 357-360.

Cautela Joseph., Wisocki, Patricia. “Covert sensitization for the treatment of sexual deviations,” The Psychological Record, Vol. 21, No. 1, 1971, pp. 37-48.

LoPiccolo, Joseph. “Case study: Systematic desensitization of homosexuality,” Behavior Therapy, Vol. 2, No.3, 1971, pp. 394-399.

Sieveking, Nicholas, “Behavioral therapy: Bag of tricks or point of view? Treatment for homosexuality,” Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, Vol.9, No.1, 1972, pp. 32-35.

Shealy, Allen. “Combining behavior therapy and cognitive therapy in treating homosexuality,” Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, Vol. 9, No. 3, 1972, pp. 221-222.

Segal, Bernard., Joseph, Sims. “Covert sensitization with a homosexual: A controlled replication,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 39, No. 2, 1972, pp. 259-263.

Salter, Leo., Melville, Charles. “A re-educative approach to homosexual behavior: A case study and treatment recommendations,” Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, Vol. 9, No. 2, 1972, pp. 166-167.

Shealy, Allen. “Combining behavior therapy and cognitive therapy in treating　homosexuality,” Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, Vol.9, No.3, 1972, pp. 221-222.

Skene, R. “Construct shift in the treatment of a case of homosexuality,” British Journal of Medical Psychology, Vol.46, 1973, pp. 287-292.

Maletzky, Barry., Frederick, George. “The treatment of homosexuality by ‘assisted’covert sensitization,” Behaviour Research and Therapy, Vol. 11, No.4, 1973, pp. 655-657.

McConaghy, N., Barr, F. “Classical, avoidance and backward conditioning treatments of homosexuality,” The British Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 122, No.567, 1973, pp. 151-162.

Skene, A. “Construct shift in the treatment of a case of homosexuality,” British Journal of Medical Psychology, Vol. 46, 1973, pp. 287-292.

McConaghy, N. “Aversive and positive conditioning treatments of homosexuality,” Behaviour Research and Therapy, Vol. 13, No.4, 1975, pp. 309-319.

(三) 書籍

克拉夫特艾賓(Richard von Krafft-Ebing)，陳蒼多譯，《性病態 : 238個真實檔案》，臺北縣：左岸文化出版，2005。

佛洛伊德(Sigmund Freud)，宋廣文譯，《性學三論、愛情心理學》，臺北市：知書房出版，2000。

Alexander, Jeb., Russell, Ina. eds., Jeb and Dash: A diary of Gay Life, 1918-1945. Boston: Faber and Faber, 1993.

Bieber, Irving., Dain, Harvey., Dince, Paul., Drellich, Marvin., Grand, Henry., Gundlach, Ralph., Kremer, Malvina., Rifkin Alfred., Wilbur, Cornelia., Bieber Toby, Homosexuality: a psychoanalytic study, New York: Basic Books, 1962.

Ellis. Havelock., Symonds. John., Crozier. Ivan, eds., Sexual inversion: a critical edition. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.

Hastings, Donald. W. Impotence and frigidity, Boston: Little Brown, 1963.

Henry, George. Sex variants: a study of homosexual patterns, New York: London: PB Hoeber, 1948.

Hammond, William. Sexual impotence in the male and female. Detroit: George S. Davis, 1887.

Marmor, Judd, eds., Sexual inversion: the multiple roots of homosexuality, New York: Basic Books, 1965.

第二節 二手研究

(一) 專書

張春興，《張氏心理學辭典》，台北：東華出版，1989年。

Abelove, Henry., Barale, Michèle. Halperin, David. eds., The Lesbian and gay studies reader. New York: Routledge, 1993.

Bérubé, Allan. Coming out under fire: The history of gay men and women in World War II. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010.

Bayer, Ronald. Homosexuality and american psychiatry. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1987.

Boag, Peter. Same-sex affairs: constructing and controlling homosexuality in the Pacific Northwest. Berkeley : University of California Press, 2003, pp.89-124.

Bullough. Vern, Science in the bedroom: A history of sex research. New York: BasicBooks, 1994.

Chauncey, George. Why marriage: The history shaping today's debate over gay equality. New York: Basic Books, 2005.

Chauncey, George. Gay New York: Gender, urban culture, and the making of the gay male world, 1890-1940. New York: Basic Books, 1994.

Chudacoff, Howard. The evolution of American urban society. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1981.

Conrad, Peter., Schneider, Joseph. Deviance and medicalization: From badness to sickness. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2010.

D'emilio, John., Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate matters: A history of sexuality in America. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1997.

Freedheim, Donald., Freudenberger, Herbert. eds, History of psychotherapy: A century of change. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1992.

Minton, Henry. Departing from deviance: A history of homosexual rights and emancipatory science in America. United States: University of Chicago Press, 2002.

Nardi, Peter., Sanders, David., Marmor, Judd. Growing up before Stonewall: Life stories of some gay men. London, New York: Routledge, 2014.

Terry, Jennifer, An american obsession: science, medicine, and homosexuality in modern society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999)

Klein, Maury. The genesis of industrial America, 1870-1920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007)

Johnson, David. The Lavender Scare: The cold war persecution of gays and lesbians in the federal government. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.

Weeks, Jeffrey. Sex, politics and society: The regulation of sexuality since 1800. London; New York: Routledge, 2017.

Weinberg, Martin S., and Alan P. Bell, eds. Homosexuality: An annotated bibliography. New York: Harper & Row, 1972.

(二) 專書文章

D’Emilio, John. “Capitalism and gay identity,” In Families in the US: Kinship and domestic politics, (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998), pp.131-41.

Hansen, Bert. “American physicians' ‘discovery’ of homosexuals, 1880-1900: a new diagnosis in a changing society,” in Charles E. Rosenberg and Janet Golden, ed., Framing disease: Studies in cultural history (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1992), pp. 104-133.

王秀雲，〈疾病與「天生如此」的戰場：近代科學醫療史中的同性戀〉，陳美華，王秀雲,，黃于玲編，《慾望性公民：同性親密公民權讀本》，高雄：巨流出版，2018，頁125-149。

(三) 期刊

Bullough, Vern. “American physicians and sex research and expertise, 1900–1990,” Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences, Vol. 52, No. 2, 1997, pp. 236-257.

Cotton, Christopher., Ridings John, “Getting out/Getting in: The DSM, political activism, and the social construction of mental disorders,” Social Work in Mental Health, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 181-205.

Chauncey, George. “From sexual inversion to homosexuality: Medicine and the changing conceptualization of female deviance,” Salmagundi, Vol.58, No. 59, 1982, pp. 4-146.

Cuordileone, Kyle. “’Politics in an age of anxiety’: Cold War political culture and the crisis in American masculinity, 1949-1960,” The Journal of American History, Vol. 87, No. 2, 2000, pp. 515-545.

Davison, Gerald. “Homosexuality: The ethical challenge,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 44, No. 2, 1976, pp. 157-162.

Davison, Gerald. “Not can but ought: The treatment of homosexuality,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 46, No. 1, 1978, pp. 170-172.

Drescher, Jack “I'm your handyman: A history of reparative therapies,” Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 36, No. 1, 1998, pp. 19-42.

Drescher, Jack. “Out of DSM: Depathologizing homosexuality,” Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 5, No. 4, 2015, pp. 565-575.

Faderman, Lillian. “The morbidification of love between women by 19th-century Sexologists,” Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1978, pp. 73-90.

Freedman, Estelle. “’Uncontrolled desires’: The response to the sexual psychopath, 1920-1960,” The Journal of American History, Vol. 74, No.1, 1987, pp. 83-106.

Friedman, Richard., Downey, Jennifer. “Psychoanalysis and the model of homosexuality as psychopathology: A historical overview,” American Journal of Psychoanalysis, Vol. 58, No. 3, 1998, pp. 249-270.

Glass, Guy. “Doctor anonymous: Creating contexts for homosexuality as mental illness,” Journal of Medical Humanities, Vol. 39, No. 1, 2018, pp. 101-109.

Martin, Karin. “Gender and Sexuality: Medical opinion on homosexuality, 1900-1950,” Gender and Society, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1993, pp. 246-260.

Phelan, James., Whitehead, Neil., Sutton, Philip. “What research shows: NARTH's response to the APA claims on homosexuality,” Journal of Human Sexuality, Vol. 1, pp. 1-121.

Sturgis, Ellie., Adams, Henry, “The right to treatment: Issues in the treatment of homosexuality,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 46, No. 1, 1978, pp. 165-169.

Stephen, Mitchell, “The psychoanalytic treatment of homosexuality: Some technical considerations,” International Review of Psycho-Analysis, Vol. 8, 1981, pp. 23-59.

第三節 網路資料

American Psychiatric Association, “APA Reiterates Strong Opposition to Conversion Therapy”, American Psychiatric Association News Releases, November 15, 2018, https://www.psychiatry.org/newsroom/news-releases/apa-reiterates-strong-opposition-to-conversion-therapy (accessed December 3, 2019)

Shear, Michael. “Obama Calls for End to ‘Conversion’ Therapies for Gay and Transgender Youth”, The New York Times, April 8, 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/09/us/politics/obama-to-call-for-end-to-conversion-therapies-for-gay-and-transgender-youth.html (accessed December 3, 2019)

校內：2021-04-16公開
校外：2021-04-16公開