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研究生：	黃昱誠 Huang, Yu-Cheng
論文名稱：	金奈米粒子修飾之聚苯胺奈米纖維電極於無標記電化學白蛋白免疫感測器的開發 Label-free electrochemical albumin immunosensor based on gold nanoparticle modified polyaniline nanofiber electrode
指導教授：	林家裕 Lin, Chia-Yu
學位類別：	碩士 Master
系所名稱：	工學院 - 化學工程學系 Department of Chemical Engineering
論文出版年：	2020
畢業學年度：	108
語文別：	中文
論文頁數：	78
中文關鍵詞：	白蛋白、電化學阻抗頻譜、金奈米粒子、免疫感測器、聚苯胺、尿液分析
外文關鍵詞：	Abumin, Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, Gold nanoparticle, Immunosensor, Polyaniline, Urinalysis
相關次數：	點閱：127 下載：0
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在臨床醫學研究中顯示，尿液中的白蛋白與慢性腎臟病有著高度相關，慢性腎臟病分為五期，若能夠在早期發現腎功能異常並及早進行就醫治療，患者仍可能恢復到健康狀態；反之，若已罹患中、後期慢性腎臟病，則僅能藉由藥物或洗腎來延緩病情惡化之程度。因此，為了預防腎功能之初期變異，避免病情到達不可逆階段，開發可精準量測尿液中白蛋白的感測器是不可或缺的。
本研究利用金奈米粒子修飾之聚苯胺奈米纖維電極作為固定白蛋白抗體的基材。當白蛋白抗體與白蛋白結合產生白蛋白抗體－抗原複合物時，會阻塞電解液中赤血鹽/黃血鹽氧化還原對擴散至電極表面的路徑，因而造成介面電荷轉移阻抗值增加，而此阻抗值變化量即可作為白蛋白濃度檢測之依據。本研究先進行金奈米粒子沉積條件的優化，試圖達到聚苯胺奈米纖維表面均勻修飾金奈米顆粒、提高可供抗體固定化表面積以及提高感測器靈敏度之目的。修飾電極之物化特性係透過掃描式電子顯微鏡、穿透式顯微鏡、拉曼光譜以及紫外線/可見光分光光譜等分析技術分析，而電極之感測性能則由電化學交流頻譜進行分析。結果顯示所開發之白蛋白電化學免疫型感測器具有優良感測性能，包括高靈敏度(24.52 Ω/log(mg/dL))、低偵測下限(0.02 mg/dL)，寬線性範圍(0.02- 30.0 mg/dL)，以及高準確性(誤差<4.5%)。

SUMMARY
Clinical studies have shown that urine albumin is highly related to chronic kidney disease (CKD). CKD can be divided into five stages, and if abnormal kidney function can be identified and treated at early stage, the patients can recover their healthy state. Conversely, the patients with CKD at middle and late stages won’t recover their healthy state, and require the use of drugs or dialysis to slow down the deterioration of the disease. To prevent the kidney failure, it is therefore indispensable to develop a sensor with high accuracy towards the detection of urine albumin.
In this study, gold nanoparticles modified polyaniline nanofiber electrode was prepared and used as the substrate for the immobilization of albumin antibody. When the albumin antibody interacts with albumin to form the albumin antibody-antigen complex, the diffusion path of [Fe(CN)6]3-/[Fe(CN)6]4- redox couples from the bulk electrolyte to the electrode surface will be blocked, which results in the increase in the interfacial charge transfer resistance. The changes in the resistance induced by the albumin can therefore be used as the basis for the detection of urine albumin. The optimization on the conditions for the electrodeposition of gold nanoparticles was performed with an aim at achieving the uniform modification of the gold nanoparticles on the surface of the polyaniline nanofibers, increasing the surface area available for antibody immobilization, and increasing the sensitivity of the sensor.
The physical and chemical properties of the modified electrode were analyzed by scanning electron microscope, transmission electron microscope, and Raman spectroscopy, and the sensing performance of the electrode was analyzed by AC electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The results show that the developed albumin electrochemical immune sensor has excellent sensing performance, including high sensitivity (24.52 log(mg/dL)), low detection limit (0.02 mg/dL), and wide linear range (0.02- 30.0 mg/dL), and high accuracy (error <4.5%)

Keywords: Abumin; Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy; Gold nanoparticle; Immunosensor; Polyaniline; Urinalysis.

總目錄
摘要	I
Extended Abstract	II
致謝	XI
總目錄	XII
表目錄	XIV
圖目錄	XV
第一章 緒論	1
1.1	前言	1
1.2	化學感測器	2
1.2.1	基本結構與工作原理	3
1.2.2	生物感測器	5
1.2.2.1	生物辨識單元	5
1.2.2.2	生物辨識單元於傳感器之修飾	10
1.2.3	傳感器類型	12
1.3	白蛋白	14
1.3.1	白蛋白感測器	18
1.4	研究動機	20
第二章 原理與文獻回顧	22
2.1	聚苯胺	22
2.2	金奈米粒子	24
2.3	抗體的固定化	26
2.4	電化學阻抗分析	30
2.4.1	電路元件	30
2.4.2	系統之模擬電路	32
第三章 實驗方法	41
3.1	實驗藥品	41
3.2	實驗儀器	42
3.3	電極表面鍍金修飾	42
3.3.1	物理濺鍍	42
3.3.2	直流電電鍍	42
3.3.2.1	苯胺之電聚合	42
3.3.2.2	金奈米粒子之電鍍	43
3.4	免疫修飾電極的建構	43
3.4.1	金電極表面胺化處理	43
3.4.2	抗體之方向性固定	44
3.4.3	非特定活性點屏蔽	44
3.4.4	白蛋白之吸附	44
3.5	感測電極電化學分析	44
3.5.1	交流阻抗分析	44
3.6	實際尿液應用	45
第四章 結果與討論	46
4.1	物理濺鍍金電極之白蛋白免疫感測器	46
4.1.1	免疫修飾電極的設計	46
4.1.2	免疫修飾電極對白蛋白之感測	47
4.1.2.1	等效電路的模擬	47
4.1.2.2	濺鍍金電極之檢量線	48
4.1.3	免疫修飾電極應用於真實樣品之感測	52
4.2	聚苯胺/金奈米粒子電極之白蛋白免疫感測器	54
4.2.1	電極表面型態與物性分析	54
4.2.2	免疫修飾電極的設計	61
4.2.3	免疫修飾電極對白蛋白之感測	62
4.2.3.1	等效電路的模擬	62
4.2.3.2	聚苯胺/金奈米粒子電極之檢量線	64
4.2.4	免疫修飾電極應用於真實樣品之感測	67
第五章 結論與未來展望	70
5.1	結論	70
5.2	建議與未來展望	70
第六章 參考文獻	72

表目錄
Table 1- 1 HSA concentrations found in normal urine and blood serum	14
Table 1- 2 Definition of microalbuminuria	15
Table 1- 3 Current CKD nomenclature used by KDIGO	17

Table 2- 1 Different oxidation state of PANI	23
Table 2- 2 Physical and chemical interactions between antibodies and gold nanoparticles surface in bioconjugation process.	25
Table 2- 3 Non-covalent and covalent modes between antibodies and gold nanoparticles surface in bioconjugation process.	25
Table 2- 4 Comparison of different site-directed antibody immobilization techniques.	29

Table 3- 1 List of chemicals and materials used in this thesis.	41
Table 3- 2 List of instrument used.	42

Table 4- 1 EIS response parameters obtained after nonlinear fit of the experimental data using Randles equivalent circuit.	50
Table 4- 2 Rct values of different HSA concentration.(each concentration is tested 3 times).	51
Table 4- 3 Urine detection by SPCE|Au|Ab-HSA compared with TBATM-25FR.	53
Table 4- 4 EIS response parameters obtained after nonlinear fit of the experimental.	65
Table 4- 5 Rct values of different HSA concentration.(each concentration is tested 3 times).	66
Table 4- 6 Urine detection by SPCE|PANI|AuNPs|Ab-HSA electrode compared with TBATM-25FR.	68
Table 4- 7 Comparison of the previously reported electrochemical sensing in urine.	69

圖目錄
Figure 1- 1十大死因死亡人數及死亡率	1
Figure 1- 2 Chemical sensor system.	3
Figure 1- 3 Schematic representation of Y-shaped structure of an antibody.	5
Figure 1- 4 Schematic representation of: (A) monoclonal Ab binding a specific epitope (it's represented by a square) on an Ag and (B) polyclonal Ab binding to several epitopes on an Ag.	6
Figure 1- 5 General DNA biosensor design.	7
Figure 1- 6 The SELEX process.	8
Figure 1- 7 The molecular imprinting process.	9

Figure 2- 1 (A) 3D and (B) 2D structures of polyaniline.	22
Figure 2- 2 Chemical structures of emeraldine (i) before protonation (emeraldine base), (ii)–(iv) after 50% protonation: (ii) formation of bipolaron, (iii) formation of polaron and (iv) separation of two polarons.	24
Figure 2- 3 Two main approaches to antibody immobilization. A—random, and B—site-directed antibody immobilization.	26
Figure 2- 4 Schematic representation of an antibody molecule. Fab—fragment, antigen-binding; Fc—fragment, crystallizable; CHO—carbohydrate moiety; VL—variable domain of the light chain; VH—variable domain of the heavy chain; CL—constant domain of the light chain; and CH1, CH2, CH3—first, second and third constant domains of the heavy chain.	27
Figure 2- 5 Schematic representation of site-directed antibody immobilization methods. Via (a)Fc binding protiens, (b)antibody fragments and (c)oxidised oligosaccharide moieties.	28
Figure 2- 6 Phasor diagram between alternating current and voltage signals at frequency	32
Figure 2- 7 Nyquist plot for a series RC circuit with R=100 and C=1F.	33
Figure 2- 8 Nyquist plot for a parallel RC circuit with R=100 and C=1F.	34
Figure 2- 9 Randles equivalent circuit	34
Figure 2- 10 Impedance plane plot for low frequency.	36
Figure 2- 11 Impedance plane plot for high frequency.	37
Figure 2- 12 Impedance plot for an electrochemical system. Regions of mass-transfer and kinetic control are found at low and high frequencies, respectively.	38
Figure 2- 13 Nyquist plot of a CPE with different  values in parallel with a resistor.	39
Figure 2- 14 Types of Warburg impedance and transition region on a Nyquist plot.	40

Figure 3- 1 The set-up of the electrochemical cell. (a) electropolymerization of aniline, (b) electrodeposition of gold.	43
Figure 3- 2 The set-up for electrochemical impedance spectrometry measurement.	45

Figure 4- 1 Nyquist plot of EIS measurement for each immobilization step. (i)-SPCE, (ii)-SPCE|Au, (iii)-SPCE|Au|HS-PEG-NH2, (iv)-SPCE|Au|HS-PEG-NH2|Ab-HSA, (v)-SPCE|Au|HS-PEG-NH2|Ab-HSA|Gly, (vi)-SPCE/Au|HS-PEG-NH2|Ab-HSA|Gly after incubation with 2mg/dL HSA solution.	46
Figure 4- 2 Nyquist plot of SPCE|Au|HS-PEG-NH2|Ab-HSA|Gly after incubation with 2mg/dL HSA.point-experimental data and line-fitting data.	48
Figure 4- 3 Nyquist plot of SPCE|Au|Ab-HSA in the presence of different amount of HSA.	49
Figure 4- 4 Plot of charge transfer resistance (Rct) vs. HSA concentrations.	51
Figure 4-5 Results of urine HSA analyzed by SPCE|Au|Ab-HSA electrode and TBATM-25FR.	53
Figure 4- 6 SEM images of polyaniline modified electrodes prepared at different deposition current densities: (a): 0.1 mA/cm2, (b): 0.5 mA/cm2, (c): 1 mA/cm2, (d): 5 mA/cm2, (e): 10 mA/cm2, (f): 12.5 mA/cm2, scale bar: 5 m.	55
Figure 4- 7 (a)-(f) Cyclic voltammetry of polyaniline modified electrodes prepared at different deposition current densities: (a) 0.1 mAcm-2, (b) 0.5 mAcm-2, (c) 1 mAcm-2, (d) 5 mAcm-2, (e) 10 mAcm-2, (f) 12.5 mAcm-2, (g) plots of net current density vs. scan rate	56
Figure 4- 8 SEM images of gold nanoparticles modified polyaniline nanofiber modified electrodes prepared with different deposition current densities: (a, a’):-10 mA/cm2, (b, b’):-5 mA/cm2, (c, c’):-1 mA/cm2, scale bars for (a, b, c) and (a’, b’, c’) are 1 and 5 m, respectively.	58
Figure 4- 9 (a, c) TEM images of polyaniline (b) EDS analysis for the square region of (a) (d, e) EDS elemental mapping images for C (blue in d), and N (red in e).	59
Figure 4- 10 (a) TEM image of gold nanoparticles modified polyaniline(b) EDS analysis for (a), (c, d, e) EDS elemental mapping images for Au (red in c), C (blue in d), and N (green in e).	60
Figure 4- 11 Raman spectroscopy of (ⅰ) FTO@PANI and (ⅱ) FTO@PANI@AuNPs	61
Figure 4- 12 Nyquist plot of EIS measurement for each immobilization step.Insert figure is bare electrode(SPCE).(i)-SPCE|PANI, (ii)-SPCE|PANI|AuNPs, (iii)- SPCE|PANI|AuNPs |HS-PEG-NH2, (iv)- SPCE|PANI|AuNPs|HS-PEG-NH2|Ab-HSA, (v)- SPCE|PANI|AuNPs |HS-PEG-NH2|Ab-HSA|Gly, (vi)- SPCE|PANI|AuNPs |HS-PEG-NH2|Ab-HSA|Gly after incubation with 2mg/dL HSA solution.	62
Figure 4- 13 Nyquist plot of SPCE/PANI/AuNPs/HS-PEG-NH2/Ab-HSA/Gly after incubation with 20mg/dL HSA.point-experimental data, line-fitting data.	63
Figure 4- 14 (A)Warburg impedance for the approximation finite space diffusion model.(B)Extension Randles equivalent circuit.	64
Figure 4- 15 Nyquist plot of SPCE|PANI|AuNPs|Ab-HSA in the presence of different amount of HSA.	65
Figure 4- 16 Plot of charge transfer resistance (Rct) vs. HSA concentrations.	66
Figure 4- 17 Results of urine HSA analyzed by SPCE|PANI|AuNPs|Ab-HSA electrode and TBATM-25FR.	67


                                    

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