隨著微型能源系統（MEMS）發展，高能量密度之微尺度燃燒技術逐漸受到重視。氨（NH₃）因具燃燒端無碳排放、高能量密度及既有儲運基礎設施等優勢，被視為具潛力之無碳燃料。然而，氨反應性低、著火困難，且於微尺度燃燒環境中，易受到熱損失影響而導致火焰不穩定，使其實際應用受到限制。本研究以雙氧水（H₂O₂）作為化學助燃劑，並結合含空腔微管道之穩焰結構，探討化學助燃與幾何穩焰之協同作用，對微尺度氨氣燃燒特性之影響。本研究採用 ANSYS Fluent 建立二維數值模型，並結合田口法、操作區間圖及氮轉換路徑分析，評估燃燒穩定性、燃料轉換能力及 NOx 生成機制。結果顯示，雙氧水分解所產生之 OH、O 與 H 等活性自由基，可有效提升氨燃料反應活性並擴展穩定燃燒範圍。
當雙氧水取代比 α = 50% 時，系統由化學促進主導逐漸轉變為化學促進，與空腔穩焰共同作用之臨界區域。田口法分析顯示，空腔數量為最具影響力之幾何參數，在雙氧水輔助下，系統僅需 L/D ≈ 3.84 即可維持穩定燃燒，相較傳統需依賴高 L/D（>15）空腔強回流穩焰之設計概念明顯降低。操作區間圖結果進一步顯示，空腔結構可有效延伸低雙氧水供應條件下之穩定燃燒區域，並建立兼顧接近完全 NH₃ 轉換，與單位燃料流量 NOx 排放低於 1 ppm·s/kg 之平衡操作區域。NOx 路徑分析結果顯示，本研究系統之氮氧化物主要來自 Fuel-N 機制；隨雙氧水供應降低，氮轉換路徑及 NOx 物種組成亦隨之改變，顯示雙氧水除影響燃燒反應性外，亦會改變氮元素之轉換行為。綜合而言，本研究證實雙氧水化學助燃與空腔穩焰結構具有顯著協同效應，可降低系統對高 L/D 空腔依賴性並擴展穩定燃燒操作範圍，提供未來微型能源系統及無碳燃料應用之設計參考。

Micro-scale ammonia combustion is promising for compact carbon-free energy systems, but low reactivity, poor ignitability, and severe wall heat loss can cause incomplete conversion and flame instability. This study investigates hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a chemical combustion enhancer combined with cavity-based microchannel flame stabilization. A two-dimensional CFD model was established in ANSYS Fluent, and the effects of H2O2 substitution ratio, H2O2 molar concentration, cavity geometry, and inlet velocity were evaluated. A Taguchi L9(34) design was applied to optimize complete fuel- conversion distance (Lconv), normalized NOx emission (NOx,norm), and the combined index NOx,norm × Lconv. Taguchi predictions agreed with CFD validation within approximately 3%. For the combined objective, the selected configuration was D = 0.3125 mm, P = 1.0 mm, N = 4, and U = 5 m/s, corresponding to L/D = 3.84. Operating maps showed that cavities extend the stable combustion region toward lower H2O2 supply, while higher H2O2 improves conversion but increases NOx. A recommended region was identified using complete NH3 conversion, Lconv ≤ 5 mm, and NOx,norm ≤ 1 ppm·s/kg as criteria. Nitrogen analysis showed that decreasing H2O2 mainly weakened overall reaction intensity rather than changing the principal reaction pathways, although the outlet NO/N2O distribution changed substantially. The results clarify the complementary roles of chemical enhancement and geometric stabilization in micro-scale ammonia combustion.

[1] International Energy Agency (IEA) (2021). Net Zero by 2050: A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector. Paris, France: International Energy Agency. https://www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-by-2050
[2] International Energy Agency (IEA) (2025). World Energy Outlook 2025. Paris, France: International Energy Agency. https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2025
[3] Bureau of Energy, Ministry of Economic Affairs (2025). Energy Statistics Handbook 2024 (in Chinese). Taipei, Taiwan: BOE, MOEA.
[4] Sheykhbaglou, Soroush, Dimitriou, Panagiotis, Perpinias, Ioannis, Pan, Jiajie, Wang, Yu, Li, Feng (2025). A review of employed flame stabilization techniques in development of micro/mesoscale combustion-based direct energy conversion systems. Fuel, 356, 134444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2023.134444
[5] Nauman, Muhammad, Pan, Jianfeng, Wang, Yu, Li, Feiyang, Ojo, Abiodun Oluwaleke, Raza, Ali (2024). A review of recent advancements in micro combustion techniques to enhance flame stability and fuel residence time. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 49, 1165–1193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.09.050
[6] Fernandez‑Pello, Carlos A. (2002). Micropower generation using combustion: Issues and approaches. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 29(1), 883–899. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1540-7489(02)80112-3
[7] Beloit College (n.d.). Energy density of fuels and batteries. Chemistry slide resources, Department of Chemistry, Beloit College. https://chemistry.beloit.edu/edetc/SlideShow/slides/energy/density.html
[8] Chen, Chih-Peng, Chao, Yei-Chin, Wu, Chih-Yung, Lee, Jung-Chang, Chen, Guan-Bang (2006). Development of a catalytic hydrogen micro-propulsion system. Combustion Science and Technology, 178(12), 2261–2279.
[9] International Energy Agency (IEA) (2025). Global Hydrogen Review 2025. Paris, France: International Energy Agency. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2025
[10] Alnajideen, Mohammad, Shi, Hao, Northrop, William F., Emberson, David R., Kane, Sean M., Czyzewski, Pawel, Valera‑Medina, Agustin (2024). Ammonia combustion and emissions in practical applications: A review. Carbon Neutrality, 3, 13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43979-024-00088-6
[11] Pagliaro, Mario, Meneguzzo, Francesco (2025). Ammonia as a hydrogen carrier: Energetic assessment of large-scale storage. Energies, 18(1), 123. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18010123
[12] Elbaz, Abdallah M., Wang, Shijin, Guiberti, Thibaut F., Roberts, William L. (2022). Review on the recent advances on ammonia combustion from the fundamentals to the applications. Fuel Communications, 10, 100053. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfueco.2022.100053
[13] Hayakawa, Akihiro, Goto, Takuma, Mimoto, Ryo, Arakawa, Yuta, Kudo, Takashi, Kobayashi, Hiroshi (2015). Laminar burning velocity and Markstein length of ammonia/air premixed flames at various pressures. Fuel, 159, 98–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.06.070
[14] Sakurai, Takuya, Yuasa, Shinji, Honda, Tatsuya, Shimotori, Satoshi (2008). Heat loss reduction and hydrocarbon combustion in ultra-micro combustors for ultra-micro gas turbines. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 32(2), 3057–3064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2008.06.002
[15] Ju, Yiguang, Xu, Bing (2015). Fundamental limits and design criteria of small-scale combustors. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 48, 21–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2014.12.002
[16] Alipoor, Mohammad, Mazaheri, Kambiz (2013). FREI combustion of premixed hydrogen–air in heated micro-channels. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 38(2), 1161–1172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.10.074
[17] Wan, Meilin, Cheng, Ping (2011). Flame stability of premixed hydrogen–air combustion in micro-combustors with different wall thermal conductivities. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 54(1–3), 222–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2010.09.001
[18] Kaisare, Neeraj S., Vlachos, Dionisios G. (2007). Extending the region of stable homogeneous micro-combustion through forced unsteady operation. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 31(2), 1939–1946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2006.07.031
[19] Hamilton Smith, Christopher O. L., Lawson, Nigel J., Vio, Giovanni A. (2024). History, review and summary of the cavity flow phenomena. European Journal of Mechanics B/Fluids, 104, 103348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euromechflu.2024.07.005
[20] Lv, En, Wang, Shijin, Fan, Aihua (2024). Combustion performances of a novel micro-combustor with a backward facing step and an exhaust gas recirculation channel. Applied Thermal Engineering, 244, 122929. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2024.122929
[21] Li, Shuang, Wang, Zhiqiang, Wei, Xin, Wang, Chao (2025). Modelling the decomposition and combustion of ethanol–hydrogen peroxide premixed monopropellant in thruster. Aerospace Science and Technology, 150, 111182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2025.111182
[22] Vasheghani Farahani, Hamed, Tahsini, Amir Mohammad, Sharifi Ilkhchi, Ali Hossein (2024). Hydrogen peroxide droplet gasification and decomposition: Classic evaporation model vs. conjugate model. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, 53, 102713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2024.102713
[23] Deng, Liang, Ping, Lei, Chen, Chao, Wang, Wei (2025). Numerical analysis of hydrogen peroxide injection effect on the combustion characteristics of a staged combustion aft-injected hybrid rocket motor. Acta Astronautica, 224, 421–432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2025.05.013
[24] Fernandez‑Pello, Carlos A. (2002). Micropower generation using combustion: Issues and approaches. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 29(1), 883–899. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1540-7489(02)80112-3
[25] Nauman, Muhammad, Pan, Jianfeng, Wang, Yu, Li, Feiyang, Ojo, Abiodun Oluwaleke, Raza, Ali (2023). A review of recent advancements in micro combustion techniques to enhance flame stability and fuel residence time. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 48, 33832–33867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.09.050
[26] Ju, Yiguang, Xu, Bing (2005). Theoretical and experimental studies on mesoscale flame propagation and extinction. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 30(2), 2445–2453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2004.08.266
[27] Alipoor, Alireza, Mazaheri, Kiumars (2016). Combustion characteristics and flame bifurcation in repetitive extinction–ignition dynamics for premixed hydrogen–air combustion in a heated micro channel. Energy, 109, 650–663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.04.118
[28] Wan, Jing, Yang, Weicheng, Fan, Aihua, Liu, Yanfeng, Yao, Hao, Liu, Wenming (2014). A numerical investigation on combustion characteristics of hydrogen–air mixture in a micro-combustor with wall cavities. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 39, 11338–11351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.03.116
[29] Sakurai, Takuya, Yuasa, Shinji, Honda, Tatsuya, Shimotori, Satoshi (2008). Heat loss reduction and hydrocarbon combustion in ultra-micro combustors for ultra-micro gas turbines. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 32, 3057–3064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2008.06.002
[30] Ju, Yiguang, Xu, Bing (2005). Theoretical and experimental studies on mesoscale flame propagation and extinction. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 30(2), 2445–2453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2004.08.266
[31] Kaisare, Neeraj S., Vlachos, Dionisios G. (2007). Extending the region of stable homogeneous micro-combustion through forced unsteady operation. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 31, 1939–1946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2006.07.031
[32] Nauman, Muhammad, Pan, Jianfeng, Wang, Yu, Li, Feiyang, Ojo, Abiodun Oluwaleke, Raza, Ali (2024). A review of recent advancements in micro combustion techniques to enhance flame stability and fuel residence time. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 49, 1165–1193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.09.050
[33] Hosein Faramarzpour, Kiumars Mazaheri, Alireza Alipoor (2018). Effect of backward facing step on radiation efficiency in a high-temperature combustor. Renewable Energy, 118, 547–558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2018.06.002
[34] Yang, Wenming, Chou, Siew Hwa, Shu, Chang (2002). Combustion in micro-cylindrical combustors with and without a backward facing step. Applied Thermal Engineering, 22(16), 1777–1798. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-4311(02)00113-8
[35] Wardana, I. N. G., Sanata, B. D., et al. (2019). Effect of backward facing step on combustion stability in a micro-combustor. Eastern-European Journal of Enterprise Technologies, 1/8(97), 52–60. https://doi.org/10.15587/1729-4061.2019.155736
[36] Chen, Junjie (2022). Computational study of combustion characteristics and flame stability of a cavity-stabilized burner. International Journal of Energy Studies, 7(1), 21–48. https://doi.org/10.30939/ijes.1060551
[37] Micka, Daniel J., Driscoll, James F. (2009). Combustion characteristics of a dual-mode scramjet combustor with cavity flame-holder. Combustion and Flame, 156(8), 1615–1627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2009.02.011
[38] Wan, Jing, Yang, Weicheng, Fan, Aihua, Liu, Yanfeng, Yao, Hao, Liu, Wenming (2014). A numerical investigation on combustion characteristics of hydrogen–air mixture in a micro-combustor with wall cavities. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 39, 11338–11351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.03.116
[39] Zheng Zhang, Kun Wu, Richard Yuen, Wei Yao, Jian Wang (2020). Numerical investigation on the performance of bluff body augmented micro cavity-combustor. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 45(12), 7230–7245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.12.066
[40] Zhang, Yong, Li, Hao, Zhao, Wei (2023). Effect of multiple bluff bodies on hydrogen–air combustion in micro-combustors. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 48, 4064–4080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.11.123
[41] Peng, Qiang, et al. (2024). Investigation on hydrogen-fueled combustion characteristics and flame stability in micro-planar combustors with inlet-fins and bluff-bodies. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 49, in press. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.03.165
[42] Li, Jian, Gong, Xuejiao, Wang, Xiaoyong, Ju, Yiguang (2021). A review on combustion characteristics of ammonia as a carbon-free fuel. Frontiers in Energy Research, 9, 760356. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2021.760356
[43] Cheng, Qing, Du, Zhenyu, Wang, Hao, Li, Yafei (2025). Ammonia as a sustainable fuel: Review and novel strategies. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 207, 114004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2024.114004
[44] Jin, Tao, Hao, Xiaolei, Li, Pengfei, Jin, Haibo (2022). Effect of ammonia on laminar combustion characteristics of methane–air flames. ACS Omega, 7(17), 14432–14445. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.1c05938
[45] Sun, Jian, Li, Zhen, Liu, Xiaoqing (2025). Combustion characteristics of hydrogen, ammonia, and their blends: A review. Fuel, in press. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2025.128000
[46] Zarei, Mohammad, Jangi, Mohsen, Chakraborty, Nilanjan (2022). Flame stabilization and pollutant emissions of turbulent ammonia and blended ammonia flames: A review of the recent experimental and numerical advances. Fuel, 325, 124932. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.124932
[47] Radwan, Ahmed M., El-Batsh, Hossam M., El-Emam, Ahmed H., Habib, Mohamed A. (2025). Flammability limit of lean ammonia premixed flames in a micro-planar combustor. Chemical Engineering Science, 288, 122622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2025.122622
[48] Jowkar, Saeid, Pourazadi, Farshad, Khoshkhoo, Mohammad J., Malayeri, Mohammad R. (2025). Ammonia–syngas combustion in a premixed micro-gas turbine. Energy, 320, 126300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2025.126300
[49] Pędziwiatr, Paweł, Gąsiorowska, Anna, Czylkowski, Dariusz (2018). Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide – kinetics and review of chosen catalysts. Acta Innovations, 26, 45–52. https://doi.org/10.32933/ActaInnovations.26.5
[50] Voloshin, Yurii, Dolganov, Alexei, et al. (2008). Kinetics and mechanism of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide over Pd/SiO₂ catalyst. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 47(22), 8612–80. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie8000452
[51] Griffiths, John F. (2005). The role and rate of hydrogen peroxide decomposition in alkane two-stage ignition. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 30(1), 1083–1091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2004.08.215
[52] Hansen, Jens, Marshall, Paul, Troe, Jürgen, Osborn, David L. (2012). Quantification of hydrogen peroxide during the low-temperature oxidation of n-butane. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 34(1), 771–778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2012.05.064
[53] Gribi, Baptiste, Lin, Yen-Zen, Hui, Xia, Zhang, Cheng, Sung, Chih-Jen (2018). Effects of hydrogen peroxide addition on combustion enhancement of premixed n-decane–air flames. Fuel, 222, 595–606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.03.054
[54] Guan-Bang Chen, Yueh-Heng Li, Tsarng-Sheng Cheng, Hung-Wei Hsu, Yei-Chin Chao (2011). Effects of hydrogen peroxide on combustion enhancement of premixed methane–air flames. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 36(24), 15534–15545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.07.074
[55] Anand Shankar Singh, Abdul Gani Abdul Jameel, Sukanta Kumar Dash, V. Mahendra Reddy (2022). Numerical analysis on influence of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) addition on the combustion and emissions characteristics of NH₃/CH₄–air (O₂/N₂)/H₂O₂ mixture. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 47(86), 36442–36460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.08.264
[56] Wu, Fang-Hsien, Chen, Guan-Bang (2020). Numerical study of hydrogen peroxide enhancement of ammonia premixed flames. Energy, 209, 118118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.118118
[57] McDevitt, Michael R., Chen, Qi, et al. (2019). Rapid hydrogen peroxide decomposition using a microreactor. Chemical Engineering & Technology, 42(5), 1090–1098. https://doi.org/10.1002/ceat.201800319
[58] Li, Shuang, Wang, Zhiqiang, Wei, Xin, Wang, Chao (2025). Modelling the decomposition and combustion of ethanol–hydrogen peroxide premixed monopropellant in thruster. Aerospace Science and Technology, 150, 111182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2025.111182
[59] Schneider, Scott J., Palaszewski, Bryan (2020). Hydrogen peroxide–water–ethanol monopropellant blend for CubeSat propulsion. AIAA Propulsion and Energy Forum, Paper 2020-3809. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20205003637
[60] Okafor, Ekene C., Hayakawa, Akihiro, et al. (2018). Experimental and numerical study of the laminar burning velocity of CH₄–NH₃–air premixed flames. Combustion and Flame, 187, 185–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2017.09.010
[61] CHEMKIN-PRO 15112 (2011). CHEMKIN-PRO User Manual. Reaction Design, San Diego, CA, USA. https://pmepc.com/manual/chemkin-pro
[62] ANSYS Inc. (2009). ANSYS FLUENT 12.0 Theory Guide. ANSYS Inc., Canonsburg, PA, USA. https://www.afs.enea.it/project/neptunius/docs/fluent/html/th/node1.htm
[63] Smith, G., Golden, D., Frenklach, M., Moriarty, N., Eiteneer, B., Goldenberg, M., et al. (1999). GRI-Mech 3.0.http://euler.me.berkeley.edu/gri_mech
[64] Taguchi, G. (1986). Introduction to Quality Engineering: Designing Quality into Products and Processes. Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo, Japan.